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GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



BY 
SUSAN ISABEL FRAZEE 

PASADENA HIGH SCHOOL 

AND 
CHAUNCEY WETMORE WELLS 

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 



N^m flnrk 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1921 

All rights reserved 






\ 



COPTRIQHT, 1921 

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1921 



I'C Control Number 




i 

^- PREFACE 

v<i The cynic has remarked that there are but two sorts of 
. person who can profit by the study of formal grammar : a very 
young person whose speech-habits are unformed, and an 
older person who has formed bad habits he wishes to correct. 
For the former, the cynic adds, grammar, being a science, 
comes too early; what he needs is a good example, practice, 
and incidental correction, since use gains by use rather than 
by rule. For the latter, grammar comes too late, since he is 
either past helping or he must be reformed bit by bit ; he also 
needs a good example, practice, and incidental correction. 
Grammar, the cynic concludes, is a useless study. 

This little book audaciously pretends to be useful to both 
these persons. But there is another person whose habits of 
thought no less than of speech are in process of forming; he is 
enrolled in the upper class of an elementary school, in the 
lower class of a high school, or in the junior high school, and 
in beginning his indispensable training in formal composition 
finds himself baffled by mere problems of correct grammar, 
and therefore, much hindered in expression. His need is 
great. Under the illusory title of ''English" he is in many 
cases being taught a mixture of grammar, rhetoric, and litera- 
ture, with somewhat indefinite ideas on each and no definite 
ideas at all as to the right relations of one branch to another. 
Properly enough, composition is being emphasized in his 
training, but often without any sound instruction in the 
grammatical functions of words, phrases and clauses in 
a sentence; structural grammar particularly is being ne- 
glected. This book is meant for this person especially; 
it is, so to speak, aimed at his head. 



vi PREFACE 

For this person's sake the authors have tried to distinguish 
their work by three things: (1) its colloquial manner, (2) its 
informal method, and (3) its examples. 

We have written colloquially within the limits set by good 
taste, in the hope of saying things in words a high-school boy 
will recognize at least, and perhaps accept as like his own. 
We have arranged the book as informally as we could without 
destroying its systematic organization, relegating to the 
appendices most of the paradigms, outlines, and schemes of 
analysis, those bugbears of the ''young idea." We have 
phrased the definitions and drawn the distinctions as simply, 
but as strictly, as possible. Minor distinctions we have put 
into frequent notes and remarks. 

Perhaps we have taken the greatest pains with the ex- 
amples, which are, briefly, of two kinds, the literary and the 
colloquial. Those who object to using literary examples on 
the ground that they stimulate a disgust rather than a taste 
for literature, need only to omit them in teaching. They may 
at least serve to catch the wandering attention of a browsing 
boy, and stimulate interest while they emphasize grammatical 
points, for they are fresh and not hackneyed. The colloquial 
examples, meant to fill everyday needs, are cast in the terms 
of everyday speech. The best teachers will go further and 
supplement if not supplant these examples with those of their 
own choosing, preferably with those taken from the very 
words and experiences of the pupils before them. 

The authors hope that their plan of exemplifying in com- 
plete sentences will be conscientiously followed. Psycholog- 
ically nothing can be better to form or to Correct speech- 
habits than the practice of definite predication, for by way of 
predication every sentence states a judgment, and by means 
of it the pupil may learn to attach correct speech-uses to 
definite ideas. Secondarily, nothing in grammatical study 
can be of more direct and constant support to the study of 



PREFACE Vii 

composition. Even the study of literature may profit by this 
practice, since the one fundamental difficulty in understand- 
ing books is in grasping the central meaning of each successive 
sentence, and the habit of seeing sentences as essentially 
subject and predicate directs the mind to the essential and so 
trains it to distinguish the important from the unimportant. 

The authors wish to thank Miss Marian Segner of the 
Pasadena High School, Miss Mary Hill of San Diego High 
School and Professor E. P. Cubberly of Stanford University 
for valuable criticism and suggestions. 

S. I. F. 
C. W. W. 
Pasadena, Cal. 

April, 1921. 



I 

CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Introduction 1 

CHAPTER 

I. Nouns 10 

Kinds : Common, proper, abstract, collective 10 

Gender 12 

Number 14 

Case 21 

II. Pronouns 32 

Kinds: Personal, relative, interrogative, demonstra- 
tive, indefinite 32 

Gender 33 

Number 33 

Case 33 

Correct use 39 

III. Verbs 46 

The seven distinctions 47 

Verbs proper: Transitive, intransitive; Voice 49 

Auxiliaries 53 

Modes 56 

Verbals 60 

Tenses 65 

Verb-forms 71 

Person and Number 73 

Principal parts 75 

IV. Adjectives and Adverbs 80 

A. Adjectives 81 

Kinds: limiting, pronominal, descriptive 81 

Comparison 86 

Care in the use of adjectives 89 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

B. Adverbs 93 

Kinds: simple, conjunctive, responsive 93 

Comparison 94 

Correct use of negatives 96 

V. Prepositions 102 

Kinds: simple, compound 102 

Correct use 104 

VI. Interjections Ill 

VII. Conjunctions 112 

Kinds: coordinating, subordinating 113 

Correct use 117 

VIII. The Sentence 120 

Forms and kinds 121 

Clauses and phrases 128 

Analysis 135 

Appendices : 

A. Conjugation of the verb 143 

B. Analysis 154 

C. The Sentence: Essentials, Modifiers 157 

D. Parsing 160 



DEDICATION 

Dear Tom: 

This book is dedicated to 3^ou and to Dick and Harry, 
and to Betty and Polly and Jane as well. Why? Because 
quite recently each of you has been overheard to say that you 
''see no sense to the study of grammar." 

Really? Do you mean that seriously? Perhaps you have 
heard English called "the grammarless tongue" by those who 
should know better. But even you must know that saying 
to be nonsense except as applied to the prattle of babies or 
those sign-languages, so called, which are also tongueless 
tongues. Every language has a grammar, and its grammar 
should be known by those who use it. Do you realize that 
your protest amounts to this: " I see no sense in understand- 
ing the correct use of ni}^ mother-tongue" ? Hardly! You 
probably meant something more like this: ''I see no sense 
to learning endless rules and fine distinctions about which not 
one man in ten cares a copper." If pushed to the wall you 
would probably add, ''Oh, of course I don't want to talk like 
an unlettered backwoodsman, but I don't want to talk like a 
schoolmaster either." And that would be a very sensible 
remark. Some teachers in schools (and in colleges no less) 
appear to set value upon long and strange words and upon 
long and intricate sentences, seeming to have forgotten, if 
indeed they ever have known, that language is speech, the 
common tongue of common men. You have no patience 
with the "musty schoolroom product" ; and you are right. 
But let one tactfully suggest that you are in little danger of 
the latter fault. Of the former? — Well, confess that you 



xii DEDICATION 

sometimes catch yourself in blunders you regret and would 
like to correct. 

No, it isn't your use of slang you regret, and it isn't that 
you use nothing but slang, or almost nothing. Of that you 
are quite unashamed. You know, as everyone knows but the 
old fogies, that slang is often amusing, 

" a little time, while it is new," 

that it is sometimes apt and is always convenient; besides, it 
shocks the proper person, and that alone is enough to com- 
mend it to you. But then, slang isn't necessarily '^ bad gram- 
mar" ; a boy may use mountains of slang yet make no error 
in grammar. True, he is not likely to speak grammatically 
and slangily too, but he possibly may. What you regret is 
that every now and then you let slip things you know to be 
wrong the moment they are out, and that you are confused 
into saying other things that seem to you ''all right" but that 
somehow bring a light smile to the lips of the well educated, 
a smile that makes you vaguely uncomfortable, though of 
course you brazen it out. You know well enough, inside of 
you, that the men and women you respect most don't talk 
that way. Only the other day when you were looking for a 
job (as you put it in good, homely English) you remember 
how you detected Mr. Robinson, your hoped-for employer, 
looking curiously at you as he listened; you'd have given 
something to know just what the mistake was you must have 
made. And Mr. Robinson's, "I'll keep you in mind," was 
rather unsatisfactory. You felt as you walked out the door 
that you had spoiled your chances by slipshod speech, and 
you wished with all your heart that you had kept a closer 
watch over your tongue or had learned a better habit of 
talking when you were in school. It came over you then that 
a man can carry a hod, plow a furrow, shingle a roof, drive a 
car and yet murder the King's English, but that he cannot do 



DEDICATION xiii 

so and hope to get forward in the world, run a large business 
or an office, practice law or medicine or engineering, because 
people will put him down for an ignoramus. You wondered if 
there weren't a book some where that would help to set you 
right. 

Well, not the best book in the world can surely correct a 
bad habit; even reading the Bible doesn't always keep people 
from sinning, apparently. And were this a much better book 
than we could make, it wouldn't keep your tongue in the 
strait and narrow way. But if you are prone to stray out 
of that way — and who isn't — this book can help you to get 
back into it. 

There are just two things necessary to mastering anything: 
the first is to understand it, and the second is to practice it. 
Yes, wc often learn to understand by practicing and we 
generally acquire good habits before we understand the 
reasons for them. It would be possible for you to use your 
mother-tongue correctly without studying grammar if you 
were placed where you could always hear it correctly spoken. 
Even so you would learn it as the parrot learns, by imitation 
and without knowing why. However, yoa are not placed 
where you can always hear the mother-tongue correctly 
spoken. At home? Well, of course they don't say ''I seen" 
and " I done." But you know yourself the sort of speech you 
are used to hearing on the street and upon the ball field, and 
you know that there too you have learned by imitation 
speech-habits you would like to un-learn. Now to un-learn 
(if you will permit the word) you must understand why, and 
understanding why in the case of language, as in that of any 
machine or instrument, means knowing the parts themselves 
and how they fit and work together. 

Consider! If someone were to give you a six-cylinder 
touring car on condition that you learn to know all its parts 
so exactly that you could take the car apart and put it 



xiv DEDICATION 

together again correctly, and know just the right name and 
use and place of every part so thoroughly that you would 
know what was wrong when the car was out of order; 
would you refuse because of the work it might require? 
If you stop to think, it is quite as worth your while to 
understand your language, the car that carries your thoughts, 
as it is to understand a touring car. Just as you cannot run 
and keep in order an automobile without knowing its parts 
and their relations to the whole machine, so with your lan- 
guage: you must begin by learning its parts as they fit and 
work together in the whole sentence, if you are to understand 
and use the language rightly. 

And what a language it is! Has that ever occurred to you? 
Is there anywhere in the world, has there ever been, so good a 
vehicle alike for pleasure and for use, for poetry and for 
business? It has been kept going now for more than five 
centuries pretty much as it is, with alterations, certainly, new 
devices added and older, clumsier ones taken out; there are 
always new patents pending. It has withstood an appalling 
amount of abuse, too, at the hands of bunglers and cheap- 
jacks, and is in need of continual repairs. Yet the running- 
gear is in as good order as the best. It has cost something, 
all this; the total bill if you alone had to defray it would ruin 
you. Others have paid the costs, and now hand the car along 
to you. Here it is then, and it is yours to keep and to run. 
This book is, so to speak, a manual for keeping it in order, so 
that when you pass it on to other Toms, Dicks, and Harrys, 
Bettys, Pollys and Janes,, they may find it none the worse 
for your having used it. 

With sincere regards, 
Your Friends, 
The Authors. 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



INTRODUCTION 

Language and Grammae 

Grammar is one of the several sciences of languages. 
Philology, the science of the history and construction of 
language, includes, among others: phonetics, a science of 
articulate sounds; etymology, a science of the derivation of 
words; and grammar, a science of the use of words. 

Grammar is that science of language which defines its 
parts and states the laws governing their uses in the sen- 
tence. 

When thinking men realized that they must understand 
their language if they were to use it intelligently, they began 
to study it just as the scientist studied plants and minerals 
and animals; and just as the botanist learned that all the 
many thousand plants of the plant world might be divided 
and classified into different groups and families, so the 
grammarian found that words might be divided into eight 
different groups, called parts-of-speech, and that the thou- 
sands and thousands of new words yet to be born into the 
language would all fit into these groups. Grammar is the 
working out of this discovery. 

The Sentence 

You must of course define the parts-of-speech before you 
can understand the laws of their uses. To begin with, why 



2 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

are tliere eight parts-of-speech, and not seven or nine? 
Because there are eight several uses to which words can 
be put in a sentence. But what is a sentence? 

A group of words so related that they express one com- 
plete thought is called a sentence. 

Now not every sentence contains all the eight parts-of- 
speech. The sentence, John won, states one complete 
thought with but two parts-of-speech, expressed in two 
words; the sentence, Oh, how happy we were when we heard 
of his victory! states one complete thought with eight parts- 
of-speech, expressed in eleven words. To express a com- 
plete thought you must use at least two parts-of-speech; 
you may use all eight parts. To express a complete thought 
you must use at least two words; you may use ten, twenty, 
a hundred or more if you can make them work together. 

The two essential parts of a sentence are: (1) the sub- 
ject (what you talk about), and (2) the predicate (what 
you say of the subject). 

The Predicate 

There are two kinds of predicate: 

The simple predicate consists of the verb and nothing 

else: 

The letters have-come. 

The packages have-been-mailed. 

The compound predicate is of three varieties: 

1. the verb with its object; 

The postman has-br ought (verb) the letters (object). 

2. the verb with its complement; 

My grandfather is-getting (verb) old (adjective-complement); yet 
he seems (verb) young (adjective-complement). 



INTRODUCTION 3 

The Mayor's name is (verb) Smith (noun-complement); he will- 
become (verb) President (noun-complement). 

3. the verb with its object and complement; 

The people will-elect (verb) Mr. Smith (object) President (noun- 
complement) . 

Modifiers and Connectives 

All the other parts of the sentence are modifiers of the 
subject, or of the predicate or some part of it, or of an- 
other modifier, or of the sentence as a whole; or they are 
connectives: 

Yes indeed, (modifiers of the whole sentence) the plain (modifiers 
of the subject) people elected and (connective) reelected Mr. Wilson 
to (connective) the presidency; the (modifier of the subject) poli- 
ticians merely (modifier of the verb) nominated him. 

To know, then, what part of speech a word is: (1) see 
what is its function or use in the sentence — subject, predi- 
cate, modifier, connective; (2) see whether the word or that 
form of the word may be used in that function. In these 
ways you may know whether it has been correctly, or, as 
we say, grammatically used. 

Let us take the following sentence apart, learn of how 
many different parts-of -speech it is composed, and from 
their use, classify them: 

Oh! I wish I could-have-gone with Fred and Richard when 
they rode from Pasadena to Boston in their touring car. 

Oh expresses deep feeling and is related to all the rest 
of the sentence; therefore it is an interjection. 

I takes the place of a person's name; therefore it is a 
pronoun. 

Wish expresses action; therefore it is a verb. 

/ is another pronoun. 



4 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Could-have-gone, taken in sum, expresses action, and there- 
fore forms the verb. 

With, placed before the names Fred and Richard relates 
them to could-have-gone; therefore it is a pre-position. 

Fred and Richard name the boys who rode; therefore 
they are nouns. 

And joins the names Fred and Richard; therefore it is a 
con- junction. 

When is added to the verb could-have-gone to modify its 
meaning by showing time; therefore it is an adverb. 

They takes the place of the nouns Fred and Richard; 
therefore it is a pronoun. 

Rode expresses action; therefore it is a verb. 

From placed before the noun Pasadena relates it to rode; 
therefore it is a pre-position. 

Pasadena is the name of a place; therefore it is a noun. 

To placed before the noun Boston relates it to rode; 
therefore it is a pre-position. 

Boston is the name of a place; therefore it is a noun. 

In placed before the noun car relates it to rode; therefore 
it is a pre-position. 

Their takes the place of the names Fred and Richard; 
therefore it is a pronoun. 

Touring describes the noun car; therefore it is an ad- 
jective. 

Car is the name of something; therefore it is a noun. 

In this sentence we find: 

1. Five nouns — Fred, Richard, Boston, Pasadena, car; 

2. Four pronouns — I, I, they, their; 

3. One adjective — touring; 

4. Three verbs — wish, coidd-have-gone, rode; 

5. One adverb — when; 

6. Four prepositions — with, from, to, in; 



INTRODUCTION 5 

7. One conjunction — and; 

8. One interjection — oh! 

Now let us classify and define each one of these eight 
parts-of-speech : 

1. A noun is a word used to name a person, place, or 
thing. 

2. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a 
noun. 

3. An adjective is a word used to limit or describe a 
noun, or pronoun. 

4. A verb is a word which asserts action, state, or being. 

5. An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb, to modify its meaning. 

6. A preposition is a ivord placed before a noun, pro- 
noun, or other substantive, to show relation between it 
and some other word in the sentence. 

1. An interjection is a word of exclamation which 
modifies the sentence as a whole or stands by itself. 
8. A conjunction is a connecting word used to join 
diffierent parts of the sentence. 

Note, however, that many a word may be used as one 
part-of-speech in one sentence, and as another part-of- 
speech in another sentence or part of the same sentence. 
A word may be a verb at one time, and a noun at another; 
an adjective now, and bye and bye, an adverb; even oc- 
casionally an adjective and presently a pronoun. All 
depends on its use in the sentence. 

To arms! (noun) The enemy is upon us. Arin! (verb) The enemy 
is upon us. 

Good (adjective) wear (noun) can only be had if you wear (verb) 
the best goods (noun). 



6 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Oh, (interjection) I can't see why (adverb) we have to study- 
grammar! 

Yom* "o/i" (noun) is a word of protest; 3^our ''why" (noun) is a 
word of question. 

You liave done icell (adverb) enough (adverb); wh}^ not let well- 
enough (compound noun) alone? 

Enough (noun) has been done; enough (adjective) harm at least. 

Some (adjective) people use words as if they were ninepins to 
be knocked about, but, thank HeaA^en, there still are some (pronoun) 
who know better. 

Expletives 

Besides their ordinary uses certain words are employed 
as expletives, or filling-out words; that is, they are not 
essential to the sentence, but they lend idiomatic or em- 
phatic force. The sentence: 

There's many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip, 
could as well be written without the first word, there: 
'Twixt the cup and the hp is many a shp. 

Words generally used as adverbs or as pronouns may be 
used as there was used in the first sentence. In this use 
they are called expletives. In the following sentences the 
italicized words are not essential: 

There is a tide in the affairs of men 

Which taken at the flood leads on to fortune. 

It fortifies mj^ soul to know 
That though I perish truth is so. 

Practice 

Recast the following sentences, leaving out the exple- 
tive, or non-essential, words: 

1. It is good to be here. 

2. It pays to advertise. 

3. There is no use crA'ing over spilled milk. 

4. It isn't fair to pay men higher wages than we pay to women. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

5. There is no telling how the next election may turn out. 

6. It doesn't matter whether you come early or late. 

7. The fear of the Lord, that is wisdom. 

8. To be honest, to be kind, to earn a little and to spend a httle 
less, to make, upon the whole, a family happier for his presence, 
to keep a few friends, and these without capitulation, above all, 
on the same grim condition, to keep friends with himself — here is 
a task for all that a man has of fortitude and delicacy. 

9. The vacation was-passed very happily, what with sports dur- 
ing the days, dances and supper-parties during the evenings. 

Expletives, then, are mere dummy words, grammatical 
oddities, and not properly parts-of-speech at all. With 
them set aside there need be no difficulty in defining the 
eight parts: we have only to note what use is made of the 
words composing a given sentence, and we can then deter- 
mine what are the rules governing that use. 

Practice 

I. Take the following sentences apart and from their 
uses classify the different parts of speech: 

1. Oh, look! There goes Galbraith Rogers flying over the Mary- 
land Hotel. He is throwing something down to the people in front 
of the hotel. Let's run and see what it is. Oh! he is coming nearer. 
See! he is dropping roses. Hurry! or he'll land before we get there. 

2. Pasadena beat San Diego 10 to 7 at football Saturday. Coach 
Seay said that both sides played a first-class game. 

3. The High School float won the first prize in the Tournament 
of Roses this year. It illustrated "Midsummer Night's Dream." 

4. Oh! it was the most beautiful thing I ever saw. Mr. Ely said 
that he used five thousand carnations and two thousand roses in 
the design. 

II. Make sentences using the following words, then 
classify the words according to the way in which you have 
used them: 

1 . Man — the— boat — race — and — boy — lost — over — hat — two — - 
ten — mile — w on — but — board . 



8 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

2. When — make — Fred — and — fast — that — Harold — trip — told 
— about — us — did — j^ou. 

3. Threes and up — twos — in — the — flapped — drowsed — their — 
up — crows — pool — knees — to — by — cattle — knees — over. 

4. Thumping — street — heard — a — in — I — and — the — knew — I — 
it — stumping — was — old — wooden — was — wore — he — leg — our — 
neighbor — the — of — corporal — the — on. 

5. Clang — ^with — drawbridge — charger — a — dropped — arch — the 
— surly — through — sprang — dark — and. 

III. Make sentences using as two different parts of speech 
each of the following words: 

Part — deep — mind — board — desert — peal — object — number — 
pound — command — plain — wound — press — ring — race — fast — man. 



INTRODUCTION 



Outline Summary 



Part-of-speech 
(noun, pronoun, etc.) 



1. Kinds 



2. Forms 



3. Uses 



L 

2. 
3. 

I 4. 

1. 



3. 



2. 



I c- 



Into your note book copy this outline and, as you learn 
the different facts belonging to the outline, fill it out. 
Make a similar outline for each part-of-speech. 



CHAPTER I 

Nouns 

The first thing you need to know about a noun is what 
kind of noun it is, for there is more than one kind; the next 
thing will be to learn its many forms and uses. 

Kinds of Nouns 

If you look at the italicized words in the stanza following 
you will see that while they are all names of things, they 
differ in the kinds of things they name. 

Now Rann, the Kite, brings home the night 

That Mang, the Bat, sets free — 
The herd is shut in hyre and hut, 

For loosed till dawn are we. 
This is the hour of pride and power, 

Talon and tusk and claw. 
Oh, hear the call! — Good hunting all 

That keep the Jungle Law! 

Four of these words, Rann, Kite, Mang, Bat, are individual 
names, and are distinguished from the others by beginning 
with capital letters; they belong to the class that is called 
proper nouns. 

A name-word distinguishing an object from the rest 
of its class is called a proper noun. 

The word herd, in the third line, differs from the others 
in that it is the name of a number of objects that taken 
together are thought of as one. 

10 



NOUNS 11 

A name-word denoting a mimber of objects that to- 
gether are taken as one, is called a collective noun. 

The words pride and power, in the fifth Hne, differ from 
all the others in that they do not name objects at all; they 
name qualities. The word hurding, in the seventh line, 
names an action. 

A name-word denoting a quality, action or condition, 
is called an abstract noun. 

The other words, home, night, byre, hut, dawn, hour, talon, 
claw, tusk, call, law, are names common to the class to which 
they belong and are called common nouns. 

A name-ioord coinmon to a class of objects is called a 
common noun. 

Practice 

I. Which nouns in the following sentences are proper, 
which common, which collective, which abstract? 

1. The Board of Education called a meeting of the citizens of 
Chicago to discuss the wisdom of extending the playgrounds. 

2. The class voted to accept the invitation of the Chamber of 
Commerce to visit the exhibit, and authorized the Secretary to 
write a letter expressing the thanks of the class. 

3. The boys called a meeting of the Athletic Club, to decide as 
to ways and means for raising money for the new boat house. 

4. We met a drove of sheep and a herd of cattle as we were com- 
ing through the canyon; they were being driven into Los Angeles 
to be sold. 

5. The aviator said that he chased a flock of birds far up in the 
air, and that the birds spread their wings in surprise and fright 
when they saw the strange, new bird flying after them. 

11. Write five sentences each containing at least one 
proper, two common, one collective, one abstract noun. 



12 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

III. In the following selections classify each of the nouns 
by its kind: 

1. An excellent thing to remember, too, in this connection, is 
that England is a flower garden. In ordinary times, after an Eng- 
lishman is provided with a roof and four meals a day, the next 
thing he must have is a garden, even if it is but a flowerpot. They 
are continually talking about loveliness over there: it is a lovely 
day; it is lovely on the river now; it is a lovely spot. And so there 
are primroses in their speech. And then they have inherited over 
there, or borrowed or stolen, a beautiful literary language, worn 
soft in colour, like their black-streaked grey-stone buildings, by 
time; and, as Whistler's Greeks did their drinking vessels, they use 
it because, perforce, they have no other. The humblest Londoner 
will imiocently shame you by talking perpetually Hke a story-book. 

2. Washington, May 31. — ^American flyers today completed their 
journey from New York to England by air. 

The great feat, accomplished by the NC-4, which arrived at 
PljTXLOuth this morning, marked the chmax of the navy's systematic 
experiment to determine the obstacles of trans-Atlantic flying. 

3. The other day I went to my garden to get a mess of peas. I 
had seen the day before that they were just ready to pick. How 
I had lined the ground, planted, hoed, bushed them! The bushes 
were very fine, — seven feet high, and of good wood. How I had 
delighted in the growing, the blowing, the podding! What a touch- 
ing thought it was that they had all podded for me! When I went 
to pick them I found the pods all split open, and the peas gone. 
The dear little birds, who are so fond of the strawberries, had eaten 
them all. Perhaps there were left as many as I had planted; I did 
not count them. I made a rapid estimate of the cost of the seed, the 
interest of the ground, the price of labor, the value of the bushes, 
the anxiety of weeks of watchfulness. I looked about me on the 
face of Nature. The wind blew from the south so soft and treacher- 
ous! All nature seemed fair. But who was to give me back my 
peas? The fowls of the air have peas; but what has man! 

Gender 

The distinction of gender governs all nouns. The name- 
word, Father, Mother, John, Mary, rooster, hen, etc., generally 



NOUNS 13 

denotes the sex. But some words, parent, friend, chicken, 
etc., may denote either sex, and other words, wood, stone, 
water, etc., name objects without sex. 

Nouns ivhich denote males are masculine in gender. 

Nouns which denote females are feminine in gender. 

Nouns which denote either male or female are common 

in gender. 

Nouns which denote objects without sex are neuter in 

gender. 

Note: — Inanimate objects when personified are said to 
be mascuhne in gender if they possess strength or power; 
if they possess grace, beauty, delicacy, they are said to be 
feminine. 

In nearly all cases it is in better usage to make no dis- 
tinction in such titles of men and women as doctor, poet, 
author, chairman. When the sex is not known and there 
is no need to denote it, the custom in using pronouns is to 
give the preference to the masculine: 

Every one should do the best he can. 

If anyone in the room cannot see the board he will please take a 
front seat. 

If the distinction of male and female is to be kept, how- 
ever, the pronoun should indicate it clearly: 

If any boy or girl in the class did not understand the problem I 
shall be glad to explain it to him or her at the close of the recitation. 

In English there are three ways of denoting gender: 
By changing the endings or suffixes: 

god, goddess; priest, priestess; shepherd, shepherdess; hero, heroine. 

By changing the word: 

man, woman; boy, girl; gander, goose. 






14 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

By combining words: 

billy-goat, nanny-goat; peacock, peahen; man-servant, maid-servant. 

Practice 

I. Give the class and gender of each noun in the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

The great, old mountain seems to act as a protector over the 
lovely valley. Men and women and young children are at work in 
the vineyards among the grape vines which cover acres and acres 
of the valley. The noon-day sun pours heat down upon them and 
makes them long for the rest which evening brings. 

II. Fill in the blanks: 

1. If I am to judge by the verses she read me, I certainly con- 
sider her a true . 

2. I know that she is a skillful since she cured my child of 

pneumonia. 

III. Write the feminine nouns corresponding to the 
following words: 

Bachelor, monk, buck, Emperor, Sultan, Duke, Baron, Earl, 
Czar, tiger, stag, hart, wizard, drake, host, landlord, Marquis, 
Abbot. 

Number 

Suppose you had bought a ranch and were to make a 
list of the things you need for furnishing it. These are 
some you might choose: an automobile, a horse, a saddle, 
a bridle, a lasso, a pony, a plow, a spade, a rake, a cow, 
a sheep, a turkey, a goose, an ox; and a man-servant and 
his wife to do the work. But suppose you were to find 
you needed more than one of each. You would then have 
to make changes in spelling the names in your list. 



NOUNS 15 

The form of the noun which shows whether one or more 
than one object is meant, is called number, 

A noun which denotes one object is in the singular 
number, 

A noun which denotes more than one object is in the 
plural number. 
There are many ways in which nouns change their forms 
to become plural: 

1. Most singular nouns form their plurals by adding "s'': 

Singular Plural 

aviator aviators 

bicycle bicycles 

dirigible dirigibles 

dreadnaught dreadnaughts 

aeroplane aeroplanes 

biplane biplanes 

automobile automobiles 

horse horses 

boat boats 

motor motors 

2. Singular nouns ending in a letter or sound which will 



not unite with "s" 


add 


^'es" 


to form the plural: 


Singular 






Plural 


match 






matches 


box 






boxes 


lunch 






lunches 


latch 






latches 


watch 






watches 


class 






classes 



3 (a). Singular nouns ending in ''y/' preceded by a vowel 
regularly form the plural by adding ''s"; (b) those ending 
in ''y" preceded by a consonant change the ''y" to ''i" 
and add ''es": 



16 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



(fl) Singular 


Plural 


(b) Singular 


Plural 


turkey 


turkeys 


navy 


navies 


play 


plays 


army 


armies 


key 


keys 


pony 


ponies 


donkey 


donkeys 


pansy 


pansies 



4. Singular nouns ending in ''f" or ''fe" generally form 
their plurals by changing the "V or ''fe" to "v,'^ and 
adding ''es": 

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 



leaf 


leaves 


calf 


calves 


knife 


knives 


elf 


elves 


beef 


beeves 


shelf 


shelves 


Ufe 


lives 


thief 


thieves 


loaf 


loaves 


staff 


staves 


wife 


wives 


wolf 


wolves 


wharf 


wharves 


self 
half 


selves 
halves 


sheaf 


sheaves 



5. Singular nouns ending in "o" form their plurals by 
adding (a) '^s" or (b) "es'': 



(a) Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


chromo 


chromos 


proviso 


provisos 


lasso 


lassos 


portfolio 


portfolios 


solo 


solos 


quarto 


quartos 


dynamo 


dynamos 


contralto 


contraltos 


piano 


pianos 






(6) Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


buffalo 


buffaloes 


mosquito 


mosquitoes 


cargo 


cargoes 


hero 


heroes 


tomato 


tomatoes 


potato 


potatoes 




Singular 


Plural 






calico 


cahcoes 






motto 


mottoes 






negro 


negroes 





6. A few nouns following the Old English custom still 
form their plurals by adding ''en" to the singular: 



NOUNS 17 



Singular 


Plural 


ox 


oxen 


child 


children 


brother 


brethren 



7. Some nouns form their plurals by changing one or 
more vowels in the middle of the singular form: 

Singular Plural 

tooth teeth 

man men 

goose geese 

8. Some nouns have the same form in the plural as in 
the singular: 

Singular and Plural 

trout, deer, cannon, grouse, heathen. 

9. Some nouns have plural forms when they are singular 
in number: 

alms, news, politics, mathematics, physics, etc. 

10. Some nouns taken from foreign languages retain 
the plural forms of their languages: 

Singular Plural 

axis axes 

analysis . ^ analyses 

oasis ' oases 

thesis theses 

ellipsis ellipses 

radius radii 1 

datum data J 



(Greek) 



(Latin) 



beau beaux — (French) 

11. Some nouns may be used in the plural only: 

measles mumps scales scissors shears stocks 

tongs trousers tweezers bellows spectacles 



18 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

12. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plurals by 
adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s) to the singular: as — 

A's, 6's, etc. 

13. Compound nouns form their plurals in three different 
waj^s : 

(a) by changing the final syllable: 

Singular Plural 

spoonful spoonfuls 

dooryard dooryards 

wagonload wagonloads 

(h) by changing the most important word in the compound : 

Singular Plural 

son-in-law sons-in-law 

man-of-war men-of-war 

attorney-at-law attorneys-at-law 

daughter-in-law daughters-in-law 

(c) by changing both words of the compound: 

Singular Plural 

man-servant men-servants 

woman-servant women-servants 

14. Proper nouns generally form their plurals by add- 
ing ''s" to the singular: 

Singular Plural 

John Johns 

New York New Yorks 

When a title precedes the proper name either the title 
or the proper name may be plurahzed: 

The Misses Smith; or 
The Miss Smiths. 

15. Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning: 

Singular Plural 

brother (meaning a member of a family) brothers 

brother (meaning a member of a society) brethren 



NOUNS 19 



Practice 



I. Make a list to be sent from the War Department 
ordering not fewer than thirty articles for supplies to equip 
and provision a company of soldiers. Denote the nouns 
you use in the singular and those you use in the plural, 
and give rules for forming the plurals. 

II. Make a Ust of not fewer than thirty articles to be 
sent from the Navy Department as supplies to equip and 
provision two destroyers. Give rules for plural forms of 
nouns used in the list. 

III. Make a list of not fewer than twenty articles for 
fitting out a large cattle ranch. Give rules for forming 
plurals of nouns used. 

IV. Make a list of not fewer than twenty nouns denot- 
ing articles needed for a camping trip. Give rules for 
forming plurals of nouns used. 

V. Make a list of forty articles needed in furnishing a 
house. Give rules for plurals of nouns sued. 

VI. Use in sentences and give the rules governing the 
singular and the plural forms: 



news 


radii 


stratum 


scissors 


mathematics 


sheep 


man-of-war 


parenthesis 


data 


flock 


mother-in-law 


cherub 


trout 


tableaux 


volcano 


phenomenon 



VII. Give a recipe for making cake and give rules for 
forming plurals of all nouns used. 

VIII. Tell how to make a kite and give rules for plurals 
of nouns used. 

IX. Tell how to make a wireless telegraph and give 
rules for plurals of nouns used. 

X. Tell the difference between an aeroplane and a dirig- 
ible and give rules for plurals of nouns used. 



20 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

XL Make out a shopping list for j^our spring clothes, to 
cost not more than one hundred dollars nor less than 
seventy-five. Give rules for plurals of nouns used. 

XII. Write the plural of: 



portfolio 


chimney 


cannon 


poet-laureate 


money 


disc 


Hindoo 


alumna 


mosquito 


baby 


German 


hypothesis 


bamboo 


knight-errant 


EngHshman 


oasis 



XIII. Choose the correct form, and give the reason: 

1. She put two cupfuls (cupsfull) of sugar in the cake. 

2. He played two games of dice (dies) with the man. 

3. Tidings was (were) brought to us of the near approach of the 
party. 

4. Athletics are (is) very popular in this school. 

- 5. Politics is (are) his principal subject of conversation. 

XIV. Give the number and gender of all nouns in the 
following : 

Rustily creak the crickets : Jack Frost came down last night. 
He slid to the earth on a starbeam, keen and sparkling and bright; 
He sought in the grass for the crickets with dehcate icy spear, 
So sharp and fine and fatal, and he stabbed them far and near. 
Only a few stout fellows, thawed by the morning sun, 
Chirrup a mournful echo of by-gone, frolic and fun. 
But yesterday such a rippling chorus ran all over the land, 
Over the hills and the valleys, down to the gray sea-sand. 
Millions of merry harlequins, skipping and dancing in glee. 
Cricket and locust and grasshopper, happy as happy could be. 
Scooping rich caves in ripe apples, and feeding on honey and spice, 
Drunl^ with the mellow sunshine, nor dreaming of spears of ice! 
Was it not enough that the crickets your weapon of power should 

pierce? 
Pray what have you done to the flowers? Jack Frost, you are cruel 

and fierce. 
With never a sign or a whisper, you kissed them, and, lo! they exhale 
Their beautiful lives; they are drooping, their sweet color ebbs, 

they are pale. 



NOUNS 21 

They fade and the}^ die! See the pansies, yet striving so hard to 

unfold 
Their garments of velvety splendor, all Tyrian purple and gold. 
But how weary they look, and how withered, like handsome court 

dames, who all night 
Have danced at the ball till sunrise struck chill to their hearts with 

its light. 
Where hides the wood-aster? She vanished as snow-wreaths dis- 
solve in the sun 
The moment you touched her. Look yonder, where sober and gray 

as a nun 
The maple-tree stands that at sunset was blushing as red as the 

sky; 
At its foot, glowing scarlet as fire, its robes of magnificence lie, 
Despoiler! stripping the world as you strip the shivering tree 
Of color and sound and perfume, scaring the bird and the bee, 
Turning beauty to ashes — to join the swift swallows and fly 
Far away out of sight of your mischief! I give you no welcome, 

not I! 

XV. Bring in: 

1. Five sentences containing masculine nouns whose gender is 
expressed by combined words, as billy-goat; 

2. Five sentences containing feminine nouns denoting gender by 
change in suffixes, as priestess; 

3. Five sentences containing the mascuUne gender of goose, pea- 
fowl, bride, mistress, ewe; 

4. A paragraph of not less than fifty words containing fifteen 
nouns that name inanimate objects personified, with the proper 
gender indicated. 

Case 

Besides their distinctions in gender and number nouns 
have another distinction called case. Note the different 
ways in which the noun girl is used in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. The girl sang. 

2. Mary is the girl. 



22 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

3. I saw the girVs flowers. 

4. I heard the girl. 

5. They made the girl queen of the May. 

6. Little girl, you made a very dainty queen. 

7. They wanted the queen to be a young girl. 

8. They gave the girl some flowers. 

9. The flowers were for the girl. 

10. Mary, the girl who was made queen, was charming. 

11. They asked the girl to sing. 

In the first sentence girl names the subject about which 
the verb makes its assertion. 

In the second sentence girl completes the meaning of 
the verb and refers to the subject. 

In the third sentence girl names the person to whom the 
flowers belong. 

In the fourth sentence girl names the object which re- 
ceives the action asserted by the verb. 

In the fifth sentence girl helps complete the meaning of 
the verb and at the same time modifies the direct object 
queen. 

In the sixth sentence girl is used independently. 

In the seventh sentence girl completes the meaning of 
the infinitive to he. 

In the eighth sentence girl indirectly completes the 
meaning of the verb by naming the receiver of the 
flowers. 

In the ninth sentence girl names the object of the prep- 
osition for. 

In the tenth sentence girl explains and is in apposition 
with the subject of the sentence. 

In the eleventh sentence girl is the direct object of the 
verb asked and subject of the infinitive to sing. 

The distinction which shows what part a noun plays 
in a sentence is called its case. 



NOUNS 23 

There are three cases: the nominative; the objective; 
and the possessive. 

The Nominative Case 

1. The subject of the verb is in the nominative case: 
John ran. 

2. A noun or pronoun independent by address is in the 
nominative case : 

John, come here; oh John! 

3. A noun or pronoun that completes the verb and at 
the same time is identical with the subject is in the same 
case as the subject; it is called a predicate nominative. 

Mr. Wilson became President. 

4. A noun or pronoun used as the principal part of an 
absolute phrase (a phrase used independently) is in the 
nominative case. 

The dog following me, I went out into the night. 

5. A noun or pronoun in apposition with another noun 
in the nominative is also in the nominative case. 

Garfield, President of the United States, was a poor boy. 

A noun or pronoun placed beside another noun or 
pronoun to identify or emphasize, hut not strictly to 
modify it, is said to he in apposition. 

And I, John, (nominatives) saw these things. 
We, the people, (nominatives) of the United States in order to 
form a more perfect union, etc. 

Note: — Sometimes the appositive words are placed at 
a distance from one another: 

He was not a very close observer of Nature, Keats (nominative). 



24 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

The Objective Case 

1. The object which receives the action expressed by the 
verb is in the objective case: 

He met the King. 

2. The object of a preposition is in the objective case: 
He spoke to the King. 

3. A noun in apposition with another noun in the objec- 
tive is also in the objective case: 

He spoke to George V, King of England (objectives). 

4. A noun which indirectly helps the direct object to 
complete the meaning of the verb and at the same time 
limits the meaning of the direct object is an objective com- 
plement and in the objective case: 

They chose John captain of the football team. 

5. The subject of an infinitive (see page 61) is always 
in the objective case: 

They asked him to sing. 

The Possessive Case 

1. When ownership is denoted the noun is put in the 
possessive case: 

Mother sang Tennyson's ''Sweet and Low." 

The possessive is the only case for which nouns change 
in form. This change is usually made by adding ''s" pre- 
ceded by an apostrophe to the nominative singular or 
plural : 

The boy's coat was torn. 

The men's club is just around the corner. 

2. A noun or pronoun may be in the possessive case by 
apposition : 

My sister Elizabeth's house is two doors from my cousin Harry's. 



NOUNS 25 

Note: Only the appositive noun has the possessive sign: 
My sister's house; my sister Elizabeth's house. 

Sometimes when the singular noun ends in '^s," or in a 
hissing sound, the apostrophe without an '^s" denotes pos- 
session : 

The princess' feather marked her passage through the crowd. 

So too when the plural ends in an ^^s": 

The boys' coats and hats hung in a row. 
The sprinters' race was set for two o'clock. 

Note: Sometimes it sounds better to use the preposition 
''of" with its object, rather than the more usual possessive 
form: 

The sister of the princess wore the feather; rather than 
The princess' sister. 

But in such instances be sure that '' of " with its object 
really means possession: 

Love of country probably means Love to country; 
But love of God may mean either: God's love to us, or our love 
to God. 

Compound Possessives 

Groups of words used as one noun, add an apostrophe 

and ''s" to the last word: 

My sister-in-law's house is just across the way from my second- 
cousin's. 

When two or more nouns are used to denote joint pos- 
session of the same thing, the sign is given to the noun 
last named; but if the nouns denote separate possession, 
each must have the apostrophe: 

Brown and Hart's bookstore is the best in town. 
Neither Smith's nor Jones' has so good a stock. 



26 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Practice 

I. Write plural possessive forms of the following nouns 
and use in sentences: 



lady 


Wife of Bath 


merchant man 


maidservant 


hero 


hanger-on 


valley 


wife 


chief 



Kipling and Stevenson (joint possession) 
Wilbur Wright and Curtis (separate possession) 
President Taft and President Wilson (joint possession) 

II. W^rite sentences about the following nouns, chang- 
ing to the possessive form: 

1. The dictionaries of Webster and Worcester. 

2. The poems written by Kipling and Stevenson. 

3. The airships built by Wright and Curtis. 

4. The flight made by President Roosevelt in the airship of Hoxey. 

5. The stories written by Dickens and Thackeray. 

III. Tell the kind of noun, the gender, the niunber and 
the case. Give reasons for your answers: 

1. Harry, the champion sprinter, won the half-mile race. 

2. May I use the automobile this afternoon? 

3. Harry's skates are on the back porch. 

4. Lincoln, the great American, was as modest as he was 
great. 

5. Uncle Jack gave my brother a Shetland pony. 

6. Gentleness and strength should go hand in hand. 

7. Mary is my cousin. 

8. John, the beloved disciple, lived to be very old. 

9. Tom, will you wait for Jack? 

10. Neither Harry's nor Robert's mother knew of the race. 

11. Louis XIV's reign was a turbulent one. 

12. The book belongs to Mary, the finest girl in the school. 

13. He obeyed the Attorney-General's orders. 

14. John hit Fred, the little lame boy. 



NOUNS 27 

IV. Give correct possessive forms: 

1. We study in our class Burke and Webster orations. 

2. Is that Harry or John boat? 

3. It is neither Harry nor John boat. 

4. The book was bought at Smith and Snow book-store .- 

5. Neither the boy nor the girl story was believed. 

6. The herd leader led them astray. 

7. Men and boys clothing made to order. 

Y. Place in each blank a singular or a plural noun in the 
possessive case : 

1. I will give you the book. 

2. Which do you like better or stories? 

3. and book store is on the corner of Fifth and Cedar 

Streets. 

4. and book stores are on opposite corners of Broadway. 

5. or book will do. 

6. It was neither nor fault. 

7. The crew were saved. ♦ 

VI. Tell the cases of the following nouns: 

1. Howard, do you know the man to whom the letter is to be 
given? 

2. Mary's work being finished, she walked into the town to see 
the stores gay with decorations for New Year's Day. 

3. The man asked Mary to give him something to eat for supper. 

4. They gave the beggar money and food. 

5. They gave the poor old beggar, the skeleton of a man, a dinner 
and some clothes. 

6. Mary, being a fine speaker, made a stirring appeal to the 
audience. 

7. We waited at Jones and Hunt's store an hour for you. 

8. Stevenson's and Kipling's philosophy of work has done much 
to enhance the dignity of labor in this generation. 

VII. Bring in: 

1. Five sentences containing nouns in the nominative case: two 
the subjects of sentences, three in apposition with the subjects, 



28 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

two the principal parts of absolute phrases, two independent by 
address. 

2. Five sentences containing nouns in the objective case, four 
the direct object of the verb, two the objects of prepositions, two 
in apposition with other nouns in the objective case, two used in- 
directly to help the direct object complete the meaning of the verb. 

3. Five sentences containing nouns in the possessive case, two 
showing joint ownership, five showing separate ownership. 

VIII. Classify all the nouns in the following extracts 
and give gender, number, and case. 

1. A few nights after they passed Gibraltar his dream returned 
to him. She who waited by the brushwood-pile was no longer a 
little girl, but a woman with black hair that grew into a "widow's 
peak,'' combed back from her forehead. He knew her for the child 
in black, the companion of the last six years, and as it had been in 
the time of meetings on the Lost Continent, he was filled with de- 
light unspeakable. 

2. Then who should come to tuck him up for the night but the 
mother? And she sat down on the bed, and they talked for a long 
hour, as mother and son should, if there is to be any future for the 
Empire. 

3. Over the edge of the purple down. 
Where the single lamp light gleams, 
Know ye the road to the Merciful Town 
That is hard by the Sea of Dreams. — 
Where the poor may lay their wrongs away, 
And the sick may forget to weep? 

But we — pity us! Ah, pity us! 

We wakeful! Ah, pity us! — 

We must go back with Policeman Day — 

Back from the City of Sleep. 

4. One person I have to make good, myself. But my duty to 
my neighbor is much more nearly expressed by saying that I have 
to make him happij — if I may. 

5. As for punishment, failure carries its own. To be nothing, 
to have done nothing, to be at one with no force in the universe, 
to have helped no one, to have loved no one, all this is the penalty 
of nonentity, and it needs no added horrors. 



NOUNS 29 

6. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, 

Whom mortals call the moon, 
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, 

By the midnight breezes strewn; 
And wherever the beat of her unseen feet, 

Which only the angels hear, 
May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof. 

The stars peep behind her and peer; 
And I laugh to see them whirl and flee, 

Like a swarm of golden bees. 
When I widen the rent of my wind-built tent. 

Till the calm rivers, lake, and seas. 
Like strips of the sky, fallen through me on high. 

Are each paved with the moon and these. 

7. It was already hard upon October before I was ready to set 
forth, and at the high altitudes over which my road lay there was 
no Indian Summer to be looked for. I was determined, if not to 
camp out, at least to have the means of camping out in my posses- 
sion; for there is nothing more harassing to an easy mind than the 
necessity of reaching shelter by dusk, and the hospitality of a vil- 
lage inn is not always to be reckoned sure by those who trudge on 
foot. A tent, above all for a solitary, is troublesome to pitch and 
troublesome to strike again, and even on the march it forms a 
conspicuous feature in your baggage. A sleeping sack, on the other 
hand, is alwaj^'S ready — you have only to get into it; it serves a 
double purpose — a bed by night, a portmanteau by day, and it 
does not advertise your intention of camping out to every curious 
passer-by. 

8. One of the pleasantest things in the world is "going a jour- 
ney" — but a few know it now. It isn't every one that can go a 
journey. No doubt one that owns an automobile cannot go. The 
spirit of the age has got him fast. Begoggled and with awful 
squawks, feverish, exultant, ignorant, he is condemned to hoot 
over the earth. Thus the wealthy know nothing of journeys, for 
they must own motors. Vain people and envious people and proud 
people cannot go, because the wealthy do not. Silly people do not 
know enough to go. The lazy cannot, because of their laziness. 
The busy hang themselves with business. The halt nor the aged, 
alas! cannot go. In fine, onl}^ such as are whole and wise and pure 
in heart can go a journey, and they are the blessed. 



30 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

9. "Lavender, sweet lavender, 

Who will buy my sweet blooming lavender? 

Buy it once, you'll buy it twice. 

And make your clothes sweet and nice!" 
She was a wretched-looking creature, with a great basket, and 
it was so she sang through the street. By this you know where we 
are, for this is one of the old cries in London town. 

For the sake of my clothes, and for the noble pleasure of asso- 
ciating for an instant with the original of a coloured print of old 
London types, I bought a sprig of lavender. ''Thank you, sir," 
she said. 

10. It is this clear-sighted, non-combative humour which Amer- 
icans love and prize, and the absence of which they reckon a heavy 
loss. Nor do they always ask, "a loss to whom?" Charles Lamb 
said it was no misfortune for a man to have a sulky temper. It 
was his friends who were unfortunate. And so with the man who 
has no sense of humour. He gets along very well without it. He is 
not aware that anything is lacking. He is not mourning his lot. 
What loss there is, his friends and neighbors bear. A man destitute 
of humour is apt to be a formidable person, not subject to sudden 
deviations from his chosen path, and incapable of fretting away his 
elementary forces by pottering over both sides of a question. He 
is often to be respected, sometimes to be feared and always — ^if 
possible — to be avoided. His are the qualities which distance en- 
ables us to recognize and value at their worth. He fills his place 
in the scheme of creation; but it is for us to see that his place is not 
next to ours at table, where his unresponsiveness narrows the con- 
versational area, and dulls the contagious ardour of speech. He 
may add to the wisdom of the ages, but he lessens the gaiety of life. 






NOUNS 



31 



Outline Summary 



Nouns 



Kinds 



Forms 



Uses 



1. Common 

2. Proper 

3. Abstract 

4. Collective 

1. Person — generally in the third person 



2. Gender 



(a) masculine 

(b) feminine 

(c) neuter 

(d) common 



3. Number (a) singular 
(b) plural 



4. Case 



(a) nominative 

(b) objective 

(c) possessive 



1. In nominative case 



2. In objective case 



3. In possessive case 



(a) subject of verb 

(b) nominative by ad- 

dress 

(c) in apposition 

(d) predicate nominative 

(e) absolute nominative 

(a) direct object of verb 

(b) object of preposition 

(c) in apposition 

(d) indirect object 

(e) the subject of an in- 

finitive 

(a) showing possession 

(b) in apposition 



CHAPTER II 

Pronouns 

What are pronouns? Pronouns, we have seen {ante, p. 5), 
take the place of nouns; they can do anything in a sentence 
which nouns can do. Indeed it would be hard, if not im- 
possible, to know what to employ or how to express ourselves 
without using them. These, in a few sentences, are all the 
kinds of pronouns : 

What ... is an interrogative pro- 

noun. 

We, they, them., it, ourselves,. . . are personal pronouns. 

Which ... is a relative pronoun. 

Anything ... is an indefinite pronoun. 

These ... is a demonstrative pro- 

noun. 

Try writing the sentences by replacing the pronouns 
with nouns; you can hardly do it without changing the 
construction of every sentence. Yet every pronoun has 
been used as subject, object, or complement, just like a 
noun. 

Personal Pronouns 

We speak our own names very seldom, sometimes not 
once a day; but probably we say I, or we, more often than 
any other words, and we say you or they, he, she, or it, al- 
most as often; that is, we use the personal pronouns. These 
are: 

Singular Plural 

(1) I (1) We 

(2) You (thou) (2) You 

(3) He, she, it (3) They 



PRONOUNS 



33 



The first person denotes the speaker or speakers. 

The second person denotes the person or persons spoken 
to. 

The third person denotes the person or persons, thing 
or things, spoken of. 

Unhke nouns the personal pronouns change their forms 
from the first to the second and again to the third person; 
and the singular of the third personal makes changes to 
denote differences in gender: 



First Personal 




Singular 


Plural 


Nominative I 


We 


Possessive My (mine) 


Our (ours) 


Objective Me 


Us 


Second Personal 




Singular 


Plural 


Nominative You (thou) 


You (ye) 


Possessive Your (yours); Thy (thine) 


Your (yours) 


Objective You (thee) 


You (ye) 


Third Personal 




Singular: Masculine Feminine Neuter 


Nominative He She 


It 


Possessive His Her (hers) Its 


Objective Him Her 


It 


Plural (all genders) : Nominative 


They 


Possessive 


Their (theirs) 


Objective 


Them 



34 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



Compound Personal Pronouns 

Compound personal pronouns are formed in the nomina- 
tive and objective cases by adding self to the singular and 
selves to the plural of personal pronouns: 

Nominative and Objective 

Singular Myself 

Yourself (thyself) 
Himself, herself, itself 
Plural Ourselves 

Yourselves 
Themselves 
Note: — Be careful never to use the forms, hisself, their- 
self, their selves. 

Compound personal pronouns are used, with or without 
the simple personal pronouns, for emphasis: 

I, myself, will go. 
You told me, yourself. 
He placed me next himself. 

For showing emphasis in the possessive, singular or 
plural, own is added to the simple pronoun: 

Is this your own handiwork? It is my very own. 

Relative Pronouns 
Notice the italicized pronouns in the following sentences: 

Tom Bowling, the boj^ who won the quarter-mile last week also 
won the debate on Saturday night. The trophies which were 
awarded him have been photographed, and the picture placed with 
those of the teams and trophies that mark the school's successes 
from year to year. 

These are called relative pronouns. 



PRONOUNS 35 

A relative pronoun relates a subordinate clause to an 
antecedent noun or pronoun in another clause. 

In the first sentence the pronoun who relates the depend- 
ent clause, loho won the quarter-mile last week, to its ante- 
cedent, the noun boy, subject of the independent clause. 

In the second sentence the pronoun which relates the de- 
pendent clause, which were awarded him, to the antecedent, 
trophies. 

In the second sentence the pronoun that relates the de- 
pendent clause, that mark the school's successes from year to 
year, to the antecedents, teams and trophies. 

These are the distinctions to be made in the use of these 
relative pronouns: 

Who should always refer to persons; 
Which should always refer to animals or things; 
That may refer to persons, animals, or things. 
Who is the only one of the relative pronouns that can be 
inflected for number and case. 

Singular Plural 

Nom. Who Who 

Poss. Whose Whose 

Obj. Whom Whom 

Note : — Whose may be used also as the possessive of which. 

Compound Relative Pronouns 

Whoever comes will be welcome. 

This sentence equals — Anyone who comes will be welcome. 

Whoever is subject of the verb comes; the subject of the 
verb will be welcome is he understood. He is antecedent to 
the relative whoever though placed after it: 

Whoever broke the plate (he) was careless. 

Whoever planted that tree (he) did a service to humanity. 

Whoever comes in at the door (he) must lock it. 



36 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Whatever and whichever are also compound relatives: 

Whatever happens do not fail to return the book. 

Take whichever fits best. 

I shall give you whichever you choose. 

I shall believe whatever you say. 

Note: — Whatever means anything at all; but whichever 
means any of a number. 

Who-so-ever, what-so-ever and which-so-ever are other forms 
of the compound relative pronoun: 

And whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely. 
As when preceded by such or same is a relative pronoun. 

She lives in the same town as you do. 

If I could write such papers as you do I should like to write com- 
positions. 

Same is sometimes followed by the relative pronoun 
that or ivhich in place of as: 
She lives in the same town that (or which) you live in. 

Practice 

I. Fill in blanks with relative pronouns and give reason 
for your choice: 

1. Has it been proved that man is the only animal thinks? 

2. Wilbur Wright invented the aeroplane lives in Dayton, 

Ohio. 

3. The sailors and the boats are in the harbor leave for the 

islands tomorrow. 

4. He is the same, kind, thoughtful man I left so long ago. 

5. The song I liked best is the same given by that soprano 

sang with the symphony orchestra. 

6. She goes to the same school you go to. 

7. He deserves all he gets. 

8. I let my horse, knows the way perfectly, bring me home. 

II. Change the relatives in the following sentences to 
compound relative pronouns: 



PRONOUNS 37 

1. I shall do what you think best. 

2. I shall invite whom you wish. 

3. I shall choose which I prefer. 

Interrogative Pronouns 

Who brought the book? 

Which (book) do you mean? 

What (book, dog, man) do you want? 

When the pronouns who, which, what, are used in asking 
questions they are called interrogative pronouns: 

Who refers to persons. 

Which refers to animals or things. 

What refers to persons, animals, or things. 

Demonstrative Pronouns 

This is my section, porter, and that is my baggage: these are my 
umbrellas and those are my vaUses. 

In this sentence, you will notice, this, that, these, and 
those are used as pronouns and also to point out or demon- 
strate the nouns to which they refer. 

When this and that in the singular and these and those 
in the plural are used as pronouns, and point out the 
nouns which they denote, they are called demonstrative 
pronouns. 

Notice that this in the singular and those in the plural 
refer to things near at hand, while that in the singular and 
thos^ in the plural point out things at greater distance. 

Indefinite Pronouns 

You ma5^ all leave the room. 

You are both to blame. 

Many were invited, but feio came. 

None of these will do. 

One of the boys brought this book. 



38 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Several of the riders were thrown 

I shall send another tomorrow. 

Some of you bring the chairs. 

I have not amj left. 

Either of them will do. 

I shall carry one of the baskets, and you may carry the other. 

I did not say anything to anybody. 

In the sentences above the italicised words are pronouns, 
because they are substituted for nouns, but they differ 
from the other pronouns we have studied in that they refer 
indefinitely to their antecedent nouns. Indeed the ante- 
cedent is as often implied as expressed. 

A pronoun which refers to its antecedent (expressed 
or implied) so as to give little idea of its identity is 
called an indefinite pronoun. 

Note : — Be careful that the pronoun shall always agree with 
its antecedent in person, gender, and number. 

Practice 

I. Select the nouns and pronouns in the following sen- 
tences and tell to what class each belongs; give the person, 
the number, the gender, the case; give reason for decision: 

1. Who gives himself with his alms feeds three, 
Himself, his hungering neighbor, and me. 

2. His honor rooted in dishonor stood. 

3. Who else would soar above the view of men 
And keep us all in fearful servitude. 

4. 'Tis with our judgments as with our watches: none 
Go just alike yet each believes his own. 

5. One was fair, strong, arm'd — 
But to be won by force. 

6. A red-faced bride who knew herself so vile, 
That evermore she longed to hide herself. 

7. What-so-ever things are pure, . . . what-so-ever things 

are lovely, think on these things. 



PRONOUNS 39 

8. Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth. 

9. He that hath hght within his own clear breast 
Ma}^ sit in the center and enjoy bright day. 

10. Alice did not like shaking hands with either of them, first, 
for fear of hurting the other one's feehngs. 

11. "I know what you're thinking about," said Tweedledum. 
They were standing under a tree each with an arm around the 
other's neck, and Alice knew which was which in a moment, be- 
cause one of them had ''Dum" embroidered on his collar, and the 
other ^'Dee." 

II. Use the following pronouns in sentences and tell 
from its use in the sentence to what class each belongs: 

one many who? what who-so-ever he 

each it which? other that those 

this who which anybody then it 

III. Write twenty sentences using in all: 

Five relative pronouns, referring to persons, three to animals and 
things, three referring to both animals and persons. 
Three demonstrative pronouns, 
Five indefinite pronouns. 

Two compound personal pronouns showing emphasis, 
Two compound relative pronouns. 
Two interrogative pronouns. 

Explain uses. 

IV. Bring in: 

Five sentences, each containing two relative pronouns. 

Five sentences, each containing one demonstrative pronoun. 

Five sentences, each containing one compound personal pronoun 
showing emphasis. 

Five sentences, each containing one interrogative pronoun. 

Five sentences, each containing one relative pronoun referring to 
animals. 

CoERECT Use of Pronouns 

1. Note that some indefinite pronouns are singular in 
meaning, and some plural, and that as antecedents they 



40 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

must be followed by pronouns in the singular or plural 
accordingly : 

Each, either, neither, everyone, anyone, no-one, everybody, 
nobody, are followed by the singular; 

All, both, some are followed by the plural; 

None is followed by either singular or plural: 

Is everybody ready for dinner? 

Are all ready for dinner? 

Let each take turn riding the pony. 

Let all ride the pony in turn. 

Either of the boys will lend you knife. 

Both of the boys will lend you knives. 

Neither has taken boxing lesson this morning. 

Both have taken boxing lesson this morning. 

Anyone knows must tell the truth. 

All know must tell the truth. 

Everyone knows must tell the truth. 

2. Note the distinctions in meaning among either, any- 
one, neither, no-one: 

Use either and neither when speaking of two persons or 
things : 

Either (one of the two) is affirmative. 
Neither (one of the two) is negative. 

Use anyone, rather than either, when speaking affirma- 
tively of more than two. 

Use no-one, rather than neither, when speaking of more 
than two. 

3. The only practical difficulties in the correct use of 
relative pronouns are in the use of case: 

who or whom: 

are you going to invite to the picnic? 

do you think I gave my subscription to? 

I will tell you I think should be captain. 



PRONOUNS 41 

do you think I am? 

should be king save him makes us free? 

but Maud should I meet, 

Last night when sunset burned 
On the blossomed gable-ends 
At the end of the village street? 

4. The relative pronouns who, whoever, are often mis- 
used for ivhom, whomever, because though in the objective 
case the latter are placed at the beginnings of clauses: 

I don't know who you are ( = you are who). 

I don't remember whom I met ( = I met whom). 

You are not my enemy, whoever you are ( = you are whoever). 
Give my regards to whomever you see ( = you see whomever) . 

Instead of the general relative, whoever, whomever, to 
serve both as object and as subject it is better to use the 
two pronouns, him who, her who: 

He is sure to be false to whomever (whoever) trusts him. 
Better: He is sure to be false to him who (or her who) trusts him. 

Practice 

Fill in blanks with correct form: 
I. Either, neither, anyone, no one: 

1. Only five boys learned the lines and of them could recite 

them perfectly. 

2. Has of the two girls a riding habit? 

3. I have worked twelve of the examples, but I do not know 

of them is right. 

4. Mother invited Harry and Arthur, but can come. 

5. of the boys in the class will be glad to do that for 

you. 

6. There are five librarians in the library and of them 

will direct you to the reference books you need. 

7. of the two answers is right; work those two examples 

again. 



42 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

II. Whoever or whomever: 

1. left that door open will please close it. 

2. Helen, please return that book to it belongs. 

3. I will give to wins the race a gold medal. 

4. told you that spoke without investigating the subject. 

5. Please tell comes for the dress that I could not finish it 

before. 

6. Stranger, you be your face has a pleasing smile. 

7. The concert is free to will come. 

III. Thou, thee, thyself, ye, thy: 

1. Hail to , blithe spirit; 

Bird never wert. 

2. But Hope, with eyes so fair, 

What was dehghtful measure? 

3. I thought my partner and my guide, 

As being past away. 

4. One came, me thought, of shape divine. 

And said, " mansion waits , Adam;" 

5. Wife, dost know that all the world seems queer except 

■ and me; and sometimes I think even art a little queer? 

6. . . . and so cleave 

His armor off him, these will turn the blade. 

7. brother-star why shine here so low? 

ward is higher up; but have slain 

The damsel's champion? 

IV. He, him, himself: 

1. Howard told me that you were coming. 

2. I could hardly believe that it was standing in the door. 

3. I little thought when I went to the telephone that Harry 



would come to the telephone, but it was , and I knew his 

voice, although I had not heard speak in a year, and did not 

know that was in town. 

4. All were in the boat except Harry and . 

5. It was either or his brother who brought the message. 

V. She, her, herself: 

1. I would not ride in that machine with such a reckless driver 
if I were . 



PRONOUNS 43 

2. You are older than — and should not allow to do such 

reckless things. 

3. I know to be hard to reason with, but should speak 

to and make behave . 

VI . They, them, themselves: 

1. Who told you that it was who drove into town 

when found there was no one else who could drive ? 

2. The girls you speak of could not be for have left 

town, and then I have heard say never go anywhere 

by . 

VII. I, me, we, us, he, who, whom, it, they, yourselves: 

1. It was Mary and who brought the flowers. 

2. It was John you spoke to. 

3. What did you and do with while we were away? 

4. Will you go with Harold and ? 

5. He said that you and might play tennis. 

6. She will give it to either or . 

7. It is and not who ought to ride home tonight. 

8. You are more tired than . 

9. They were all there except and . 



10. Either Edith or Rob will lend you pencil. 

11. pencil is mine, pencil is yours. 

12. The class had room awarded to . 

13. I shall give the apples to comes for them. 

14. did they elect for president? 

15. books are ? 

VIII . I, me, myself: 

1. Arriving in Boston my brother and took a carriage and 

drove out to call on our friend. 

2. The concert gave pleasure to mother and . 

3. Both mother and enjoy the concert very much. 

4. The book you gave to Helen and is just the book • 

have been hoping someone would give to . 

5. Between you and , he is not to be trusted. 

6. I will give him the letter. 

7. You should know whether you gave the letter to . 

8. She is stronger than and I can do that . 






44 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

9. Who is going to church this morning? Only ? 

10. Was it you wished to see? 

IX. We, us, ourselves: 

1. Our cousins and are going for an automobile ride. 

2. Harry says he will take mother and in his new car. 

3. They were longer than because we came across the field. 

4. We ought to do our part to make the winter pleasant. 

5. He told that were to be invited to the party. 

X. Give person, number, gender, case, of each pronoun, 
and show its relation to its antecedent: 

1. It was my brother who brought the word. 

2. He spent some of his time at his uncle's. 

3. You should be kind to one another. 

4. This song is one of many that she learned from him. 

5. Each said that the other was right. 

6. I want each of you to bring me in his or her report tomorrow. 

7. He read the story that you lent him. 

8. Was it you or she who brought the book? 

9. It is they who do the best work. 

10. The house that we passed belongs to me. 

11. The man whom you met is my brother. 

12. She asked him and me to come. 

13. It is a joy to be in the woods such weather. 

14. Of such is the Kingdom of Heaven. 

15. What is the matter with Harry? 



PRONOUNS 



45 



Pronouns 



Outline Summary 

1. Personal: 7, you, thou, he, she, it, and the 

compounds myself, thyself, etc. 

2. Relative: who, that, which, what, and the 

compounds whoever, whosoever, 
etc. 



Kinds -j 3. Interrogative: who, which, what. 

4. Demonstrative: this, that, these, those. 

5. Indefinite: each, either, all, both, many, none, 
some, neither, anyone, anybody, 
anything, another, any, one, one 

'[ another, etc. 

1. Person. 

2. Gender. 

3. Number. 

4. Case. 

1. To take the place of a noun. 

2. To relate a dependent clause to its ante- 
cedent, noun or pronoun, in an independent 
clause. 



Forms 



Uses 



CHAPTER III 
Verbs 

Note the italicised words in the following letter: 

Dear Henry, 

I must-tell you of my visit to my old home 
in the eastern states. I dreaded the return after 
I had-heen absent so long. But I thought if I were- 
going at all I ought-to-go now, for my uncle's health 
is-failing, and soon the time will-have-come when 
I shall-iiot-have a single relative living in the 
old place. Besides, I do-think some tribute of re- 
spect is-due one's family seat. However, visiting of 
itself may-he-interesting, and yet the account of it 
make very dull reading. Nevertheless you shall-hear 
all about it, for I will-tell you. I shall-be as brief as 
I can. I suppose I might-omit many details, but 
how then could I give you a correct impression. 
Well then, listen, and the tale shall-he-told. 

Observe how many varieties of action, state, or being 
these words express; or, in other words, in how many and 
various ways verbs are used. 

If any part-of-speech may be called the most important, 
that part is the verb, for its business is to tell us, alone 
or with the aid of other words, what is said of the subject. 
And as there are many things to be said of any subject, even 
in a simple letter, so there are many varieties of meaning, 
time, and manner, and therefore, many forms and parts 
in any one verb. When you have mastered the verb in all its 

46 



VERBS 47 

parts you will have gone a long way toward mastering 
correct English. Well then, just what is a verb? 

A verb is a word used to express action, state or being, 

I made a boat (action). I die (action). 

The boat was-made (action). I am-dead (being). 

I go-to-sleep (action). I awake (action). 

I am-asleep (being). I am-wakened (action). 

I am-awake (being). 

Now to understand these varieties of action and of being 
we must first learn several distinctions: 

1. The distinction among three kinds of verbs: 
Verbs-proper, (or simple verbs) that by themselves or 

with the aid of other verbs make statements about the 
subject: 

The bird sings; the bird sang; the bird is-singing; the bird has- 
sung. 

Auxiliary verbs (or auxiliaries), the helping verbs, so 
called because without their help the right form of state- 
ment cannot be made: 

The bird may (might), can (could), must (ought-to), shall (should), 
will (would), sing; 

The bird may-have (might-have), can-have (could-have) , etc., sung. 

Verbals, so called because they have the root-form and 
the idea of verbs. Yet alone they cannot be used as verbs; 
they must be used as adjectives or as nouns: 

The singing (adj.) bird filled the room with sound. 

The singing (noun) of the bird filled the room with sound. 

To-sing (noun) seemed to make the bird glad. 

2. The distinction between a transitive and an intransitive 



48 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

verb, or between an active verb that takes an object and 
one that does not: 

The hunter killed (transitive) his game; but his horse died (in- 
transitive). 

3. The distinction between the active and the passive 
voice, or between that form of the verb used when the sub- 
ject denotes the doer, and that used when it denotes the 
receiver of an action: 

You (subject) elect (active voice) your candidate; and your 
candidate (subject) is elected (passive voice) by you. 

4. The distinction among modes or among the manners, 
in which a verb can make its statement: 

The indicative, the mode of assertion: 

When the postman comes I shall-get a letter. 

The subjunctive, the mode of condition, of doubt, or 
possibility: 

If it rain or if it shine, postman always comes at nine, 
Were the postman to come I should-get a letter. 

The imperative, the mode of command: 
Postman, bring me a letter. 

5. The distinction among tenses; or those parts of the 
verb which show the different times, present, past, or 
future, in which action may take place. There are six 
tenses: the present, past, and future; the present-perfect, 
past-perfect, and future-perfect. 

6. The distinction among verb-forms: 

The simple verb-form, or that which simply indicates 
action or being: 

I move, I moved, I shall-move. 



VERBS 49 

The progressive verb-form, or that which indicates 
continuing action or being: 

I am-moving, I was-moving, I shall-he-moving. 

The emphatic verb-form, or that which strongly asserts 
action or being: 

I do-move, I did-move, Do-move. 

7. Finally, the distinctions: 

between the singular and the plural numbers (as with 
nouns and pronouns) ; 

and among the first, the second, and the third persons 
(as with pronouns) of either number. 

We are now ready to study the verb in detail. 



Verbs Proper 

Here are four different types of assertion about the same 
thing — a boat: 

The torpedo sank the boat. 
The boat was sunk by a torpedo. 
The boat sank. 
The boat is a destroyer. 

In the first sentence the noun torpedo names the sub- 
ject which performs the act; the verb sank asserts the action; 
the noun boat names the object which receives the action. 

Active verbs which require an object to receive their 
action and complete their meaning are called transitive. 

In the second sentence the noun boat which in the first 
sentence was the object has become the 'subject, but instead 
of performing the act it received the action asserted by 
the verb was-sunk; the doer, a torpedo, has become the 
object of the preposition by. 



50 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Transitive verbs which assert action of their subjects 
are in the active voice; transitive verbs from which their 
subjects receive action are in the passive voice. 

In the third sentence the noun boat names the subject 
which performs the act, and the verb sank asserts the 
action; there is no object. 

Verbs which do not require an object to receive their 
action in order to complete their meaning are intransi- 
tive. 

Some verbs are used either transitively or intransitively: 

The destroyer sank (intransitive). 

The destroyer sank the submarine (transitive) . 

An intransitive active verb can never be put in the pas- 
sive voice. Apparent exceptions such as he is-come, he is- 
gone, really mean he has-come, he has-gone; that is, the 
regular passive auxiliarj^' be is sometimes used with the 
active voice, instead of have. 

Other apparent exceptions are intransitive verbs used 
with prepositions. In the passive use these have the effect 
of transitive verbs: 

Active: He slept in the bed. 

Passive: The bed was slept-in. 

But in the latter case the verb is not really slept but 
slept-in, meaning occupied, and is transitive in effect. 

In the fourth sentence the noun boat is the subject, but 
no action is performed and hence no object is required; 
the verb is merely links the subject-nominative, boat, to 
the predicate-nominative, destroyer. 

Intransitive verbs which do not assert action but merely 
couple the subject with the predicate-nominative or 
other complement, are called copulative verbs, or copulas. 



VERBS 51 

I am (copula) the man (predicate noun) you are looking for. 
Are (copula) you he (predicate-pronoun)? 
No, he is (copula) absent (predicate-adjective). 

The ordinary copula is be, but other verbs of nearly 
equivalent meaning are sometimes used. For instance, a 
physician might greet his patient thus: ''Good morning, 
Mr. Smith. It is I, the doctor. You seem brighter this 
morning. Your temperature, too, is lower, and your pulse 
stronger. Now, if you will just stay quiet for a few days 
and keep warm you'll soon be well again." 

In actual practice the only difficulty in using the copula 
with the predicate-nominative is with pronouns, because 
the nominative and objective cases of pronouns differ in 
form: 

Lo, it is I; be not afraid. 

It is He that hath made us, and not we ourselves. 

Was that Mr. Smith whom (objective case) you bowed to? The 
light was so dim that I could not see who (predicate-nominative) 
it was (copula). 

Practice 

I. Tell how the verbs are used and from their use classify 
them: 

1. The boy rode the donkey. 

2. The boy rode. 

3. The donkey was ridden by the boy. 

4. The donkey is Pete. 

5. The man wrote the letter. 

6. The letter was written by the man. 

7. The man wrote. 

8. The letter is an invitation. 

9. The lion is a beast of prey. 
10. The race was run by the boy, 

II. The bird flew. 



52 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

12. The girl made a dress. 

13. The dress was made by Ann. 

14. The girl sings sweetly. 

15. The girl is Dorothea. 

16. The band plays in the park on Sunday afternoons. 

17. The tire of Harry's bicycle was punctured before he was 
half-way home. 

18. I called for Mary this afternoon, bat she had been invited 
out to dinner and so could not go for a walk with me. 

19. Did you say that Mary had been invited to go to Europe 
with her Aunt? 

II. In the following selections classify the different 
types of assertion: 

1. Speaking of those yellow squash-bugs, I think I disheartened 
them by covering the plants so deep with soot and wood- ashes that 
they could not find them; and I am in doubt if I shall ever see the 
plants again. But I have heard of another defence against the bugs. 
Put a fine wire-screen over each hill, which ^vill keep out the bugs 
and admit the rain. I should say that these screens would not 
cost much more than the melons you would be likely to get from the 
vines if you bought them; but then think of the moral satisfaction 
of watching the bugs hovering over the screen, seeing, but unable 
to reach the tender plants within. That is worth paying for. 

2. There is no dignity in the bean. Corn, which in my garden 
grows alongside the bean, and, so far as I can see, with no affecta- 
tion of superiority, is, however, the child of song. It waves in all 
literature. But mix it with beans and its high tone is gone. Succo- 
tash is vulgar. It is the bean in it. The bean is a vulgar vegetable, 
without culture, or any flavor of high society among vegetables. 

III. Bring in: 

1. Five sentences having verbs in the active voice; 

2. Five sentences having verbs in the passive voice; 

3. Five sentences having copulative verbs; 

4. Five sentences having transitive verbs; 

5. Five sentences having verbs that may be either transitive or 
intransitive. 



VERBS 



53 



IV. Make sentences with the following verbs used tran- 
sitively, and intransitively: 



sing 


run 


jump 


fly 


speak 


study 


waved 


walked 


sew 


sow 


dream 


fought 


won 


sank 


write 


live 


leap 


laugh 


know 


buy 


grow 


see 


play 


ride 


leave 


V. Use 


m the active and in the 


passive voice 




made 


sang 


loved 


won 


bought 


invited 


told 


heard 


built 


dug 


washed 


dressed 


trimmed 


mowed 


plowed 


cooked 


pealed 


raked 


sharpened 


chopped 


milked 


tied 
. caught 
sailed 
cut 

learned 
embroidered 


buttoned 


printed 
found 
rowed 
watered 
studied 
closed 


blackened 


VL Use 


in the passive voice: 






dig 


ride write 


; sing 


buy make 


give 


hurt 


shoot take 


catch 


see 


draw 




Auxiliaries 







In the following sentences many verbs are compound; 
that is, they are made up of the simple verb with some 
other verb, to help make the assertion. Compound forms 
are sometimes called verb-phrases: 

I often have-thought how exciting it must-have-been to live in the 
days of Queen Elizabeth when so much was to be discovered and 
almost any marvellous tale might-be true: there might-be a ''north- 
west passage" to China by the Arctic Ocean; there might-be an 
El Dorado, or Golden Land, in South America, or a Fountain of 
Youth in Florida. Nowadays it does-require so much credulity to 
believe such things. Yet we ought-to-take comfort that two mar- 
vellous things were-achieved in our own times: the North Pole was- 



64 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

discovered and the flying machine was-invented in the same year — 
each by an American. 

A verb used to help another verb assert action is called 
an auxiliary. 

Some auxiliaries denote voice: 

Be is the regular auxiliary of the passive voice. 

Some auxiliaries denote tense: 
Have is the regular auxiliary of the perfect tenses; 
Shall and will are the regular auxiliaries of the future 
tenses. 

Some auxiliaries denote verb-form: 

Be is the regular auxiliary of the progressive verb-form; 

Do is the regular auxiliary of the emphatic verb-form. 

Some auxiliaries are also verbs-proper: 
Have, do, be, and will are both kinds of verb: 

DonU (auxiliary) be (auxiliary) always worrying about what you 
will (auxiliary) have (verb) or what you will (auxihary) do (verb). 
You may have or do almost what you will (verbs) . Think rather of 
what you want to be (verb). 



The Potential 

Certain auxiliaries are used with the simple verb to 
assert permission, possibility, power, determination, desire, 
duty, or necessity. In this use they are called potential 
auxiliaries, and the resulting verb-phrase is called the 
potential verb-phrase : 

May (might) expresses permission, possibility, or wish. 

Can (could) expresses power. 

Must expresses necessity or coercion. 

Ought expresses obligation or propriety. 

Should expresses obligation. 



VERBS 55 

Would expresses determination or desire. 

The potential verb-phrase may be used in independent 
or in dependent clauses, and either with the Indicative or 
with the Subjunctive mode. 

Shall and Will 

We are sometimes confused about the correct use of shall 
and will. 

Broadly the distinction is this: 

I (we) shall means I am (we are) going-to. 

I (we) will means I (we) want-to. 

The reverse is true for the second and third persons: 
You (he, she, they) will means You (they) are (he, she, is) 
going-to. 
You (he, she, they) shall means You (they, he, she) must. 

More exactly: 

For the first person shall expresses futurity; will expresses 
determination or volition. 

For the second and third persons ivill expresses futurity; 
shall expresses determination or volition. 

Should and would generally follow the rules for shall 
and will: 

Like the writer of the hymn, I "would not live alway," but I 
should be interested in coming alive again a hundred years hence. 

Note: — In indirect quotations introduced by ''that" 
(expressed or understood) use the same auxiliaiy as in 
direct : 

Harold says, "1 shall play tennis tomorrow" (direct). 
Harold says (that) he shall play tennis tomorrow (indirect). 
Harold said (that) he should play tennis tomorrow (indirect). 
Jack says, ''Harold will have to mow the lawn" (direct). 
Jack says (that) Harold will have to mow the lawn (indirect). 
Jack said (that) Harold would have to mow the lawn (indirect). 



56 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

In asking questions use the auxiliary you expect in reply: 

Question: Shall you go to the city tomorrow; or xuill you be 
good enough to wait until I can go with you? 
Answer: I will gladly wait; I shall not need to go tomorrow. 

Practice 

In the following sentences distinguish between the mean- 
ings indicated by the alternative auxiliaries: 

1. I will (shall) go out in the motor car this afternoon. 

2. I will (shall) be obeyed. 

3. Shall (will) you go to church with me? 

4. You shall (will) reach the top of the mountain if you keep 
climbing. 

5. You would (should) go home in spite of our protest. 

6. Shall (will) you accept her offer? 

7. She said she would (should) not do it. 

8. If you would (should) Usten you might hear something to 
your credit. 

Modes 

The manner in which an assertion is made has much to 
do with the response it receives. For instance, suppose a 
boy were lazy about getting up in the morning; various 
members of his family might try various ways of rousing 
him: 

His sister might call to him: 

''John, it's half-past seven, time for breakfast; you 
must get up." 

His brother or mother might say: 

^^Fd he ashamed to be such a sleepy-head, if I were you"; 
without rousing John. 

But if his father were to call: 

"John, get wp,^^ John would be likely to spring from the 
bed. 

The manner in which a verb makes its assertion is 
called its Mode. 



VERBS 57 

1. The sister states two facts: 

When the verb asserts a fact it is said to be in the 
Indicative mode. 

2. The brother asserts an impossible condition, or a 
condition contrary to fact: 

When the verb asserts something doubtful, condition- 
al, contrary to fact, or improbable it is said to be in the 
Subjunctive mode. 

3. The father gives a command. 

When the verb expresses an entreaty or command it 
is said to be in the Imperative mode. 

The Indicative 

The Indicative is the mode in which most facts are 
communicated and most questions asked; any straight- 
forward declaration or any question expecting a straight- 
forward declaration in reply, will probably be put in the 
indicative. Its forms are easy to recognize. 

The Subjunctive 

The Subjunctive has several peculiarities: 

1. It always asserts something at best doubtful, and 
perhaps even improbable or impossible: 

I do not know whether you would like (subjunctive) peanut taffy 
or plain molasses candy better. 

If I were given a million dollars I should not know (subjunctive) 
how to spend it. 

2. It is generally added to another statement (subjunctive 
= subjoining), usually the indicative or the infinitive. When 
added to the indicative it is usually preceded by some join- 



58 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

ing word — if, whether, though, but sometimes the order of 
words is inverted instead: 

You must choose between these two studies (simple indicative). 

// 1 must choose (subjunctive) I shall choose (indicative) the more 
practical; 
or; 

Must I choose (inverted order) I shall choose (indicative) the more 
practical. 

3. It sometimes follows a fashion of its own for chang- 
ing its form to denote number or tense, especially in the 
verb, he, and the future auxiliaries: 

When I am here tomorrow (indicative) I shall give you 

the money. 
If I he here tomorrow (subjunctive) I shall give you the 

money. 
If (whenever) it is raining (indicative) you carry an 

umbrella. 
If it he-raining (subjunctive) be sure to take the car. 

If (whenever) he was through with his dinner (indica- 
tive) he was ready to work. 

If he were through with his dinner (subjunctive) he 
would-be-ready to work. 

Were he through with his dinner he would-be-ready to 
work. 



Present 



Past 



Note: — See also Tenses in the Subjunctive (page 68) for 
correct use. 

Practice 

I. Observe the signs of the subjunctive mode in the 
following sentences: 

1. If he be ahve then the money belongs to him. 

2. If I were as tired as you seem to be I should stop working. 

3. If he come not today you may doubt my word. 

4. If he go he will first tell you. 

5. If he were not going why did he say so? 

6. If he were sure that he were going he would first buy his ticket. 



VERBS 59- 

7. I should be ashamed to act as he does. 

8. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels and have 
not charity, it profiteth me nothing. 

9. Though He slay me yet will I trust Him. 

II. Choose the correct form in the following sentences: 

1. If he (was, were) to come I should give him the message. 

2. I wish I (was, were) as clever as he is. 

3. Though he (be, is) sometimes harsh he is generally kind. 

4. If he (went, were-to-go) on a Friday it (rained, would-rain). 

5. If it (rain, rains) on Friday we must not start. 

III. Select from the Bible, Shakespeare, or any standard 
literature: 

1. Five sentences having verbs in the present subjunctive. 

2. Five sentences having verbs in the past subjunctive. 

IV. Tell the differences in meaning between the forms in 
italics: 

1. If he is {were) honest, he will (would) succeed. 

2. If he was (hod-been) honest, he (would-have-succeeded) suc- 
ceeded. 

3. Though he fail (fails) the first time yet he will (may) succeed 
in the end. 

4. Though he failed the first time yet will (would) I have faith 
in him. 

5. Though you told me he failed (told me he had-f ailed) yet will 
(would) I have faith in him. 

6. Though you told (were-to-tell) me so ten times a day I always 
forgot (should forget) it. 

The Imperative 
In the imperative: 

1. The subject is thou, you or ye (generally not expressed) : 

2. The verb is in the second person and is always in the 
present tense: 

Please bring me the book. 
Do walk a little faster. 



60 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Go down three blocks till you come to Sansome Street, turn to 
your left and walk about half a block; ring at the lower door. 

Note: — When a command is to be expressed for the first 
person, singular or plural, the form, let me (us) is used, 
rarely such a form as go we, turn we, etc. For the third 
person the form is, let him (her, them). 

The Verbals 

In the following lines observe the difference in uses of 
the word, flying: 

Boys flying kites haul in their white-winged birds. 
But you can't do that when you are- flying words. 

In the second line the asserting word is are-flying; in 
the first line the asserting word is haul. Omit the words 
''flying kites" from the first line and you have still remain- 
ing a complete statement, "boys haul in their white-winged 
birds"; therefore "flying" cannot be the verb. And yet 
it certainly has the form of a verb and gives the idea of 
action; therefore it must be part verb. But instead of 
being used to assert it is used to modify a noun; therefore it 
is also part adjective. 

Words which are verbs in form and idea hut have the 
use of some other part of speech are called verbals. 

Verbals may be active or passive in voice: 

Active: Asking (adjective) permission we gained the owner's 
good-will. 
Our asking (noun) permission gained the owner's good- 
will. 
Passive: Being-asked (adjective) permission the owner admitted 
us freely. 
Being-asked (noun) was all that the owner required. 
Active : To-die, to-sleep — 

No more; and by that sleep to-say we end 
the heartache. ... 



VERBS 61 

Passive : To-be-imprisoned in the viewless winds, 

And blown with restless violence round about 
The pendent world. 



Participles 

Observe again that as the noun hoys, in the first quota- 
tion, is modified by the word flying, so the noun birds is 
modified by the word white-winged. 

Words which are verbs in form and idea but adjec- 
tives in use are called participles or verbal adjectives. 

There are two kinds of participles: 

1. The present participle, always ending in ^'ing"; 
flying, running, etc. 

2. The past participle, regularly ending in ^^d," "ed," 
'H. "; or irregularly in ''n," "ne''; heard, moved, hurt, driven, 
done. 

When the action described by the participle is rep- 
resented as going on at the time indicated by the verb 
of the sentence it is called a present participle. 

Seeing his automobile at the door, I was sure it must be the 
doctor. 

When the action described by the participle is rep- 
resented as complete at the time indicated by the prin- 
cipal verb, it is called the past participle. 

Having-met him several times at that corner I concluded that 
he lived in our street. 

Infinitives 

Words which are verbs in form and idea but nouns 
in use are called infinitives, or verbal nouns. 



62 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

There are two kinds of infinitives: 

1. The infinitive with 'Ho" (simple infinitive). 
Do you know how to-swim? 

In some cases the preposition is not expressed: 
Do you dare (to) swim so far? 

2. The infinitive in '4ng." 
Do you understand swimming? 

Note: — When in doubt about a verbal: (1) omit the word 
from the sentence or clause; if what is left contains the 
asserting word, the omitted word is probably a verbal; (2) 
look for its use in the sentence; if it modifies some noun 
you will be safe to treat it as a participle, if it is used as a 
noun you will be safe to treat it as an infinitive. 

Swimming (participle) with all my might I reached the man just 
in time to save him from drowning (infinitive). 

Practice 

I. Denote the participles and infinitives in the follow- 
ing and give the voice and tense: 

1. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds 
And the wild water lapping on the crag. 

2. But hastily to quench their sparkling ire, 
A flood of milk came rolling on the shore 
That on his curded wave swift Argus wore, 
And the immortal swan that did her life deplore. 

3. I found Him in the shining of the stars, 

I marked Him in the flowering of His fields. 

4. It is the hush of night, and all between 

My margin and the mountains, dark, yet cleaf, 
Mellowed and mingling, yet distinctly seen, 
Save darkened Jura, whose capt heights appear 
Precipitously steep: 



\\ 



VERBS 63 

5. And there was mounting in hot haste: The steed, 
The mustering squadron, and the clattering car. 
Went scouring forward with impetuous speed. 

6. I made them lay their hands in mine and swear 
To reverence the king as if he were 

Their conscience, and their conscience as their King, 

To break the heathen and uphold the Christ, 

To ride abroad redressing human wrongs, 

To speak no slander, no, nor hsten to it, 

To honor his own word as if his God's, 

To lead sweet lives in purest chastity. 

To love one maiden only, cleave to her, 

And worship her by years of noble deeds. 

Until they won her; for in deed I knew 

Of no more subtle master under heaven 

Than is the maiden passion for a maid, 

To teach high thought and amiable words 

And courtliness, and the desire of fame, 

And love of truth, and all that makes a man. 

Use of the Infinitive 

The infinitive with ''to," as well as the infinitive in ''ing," 
may be used: 

1. As subject of the sentence: 

To-be-honest is to-be-fearless. 
Running is good exercise. 

Note: — Used with ''it" as expletive the infinitive-sub- 
ject is placed out of its usual order in the sentence: — (See 
page 6, above). 

It is good to-be-here. = To-be-here is good. 

It is fun skating on this ice. = Skating on this ice is fun. 

2. As object: 

I like to-row. 
I like rowing. 

Our friends told us to-take the first road to the left; they wished 
us good hunting. 



64 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

3. As object of a preposition: 

He was about io-go. 

He was thinking of going. 

4. As predicate nominative : 

To-see is to-helieve. 
Seeing is believing. 

Though normally a noun the infinitive with ''to" may be 
an adjective or an adverb: 

There is a time to-weep and a time to-laugh (adjectives). 
The child ran to-meet her mother (adverb). 

Note: — The infinitive in ''ing" may be governed b}^ a 
noun or pronoun in the possessive case: 

His buying the house seemed to make it impossible for them to 
go east, and so Mary's going was a great surprise to her friends. 



Practice 

Select the infinitives and participles in the folloAving 
sentences, tell how they are used, and give their tenses: 

1. Try to speak more slowh^ 

2. Climbing the last thousand feet up the mountain was a great 
effort. 

3. I mentioned the matter to him before asking yoxiv permission. 

4. Do you dare climb that mountain? 

5. Speaking of mountam-climbing, have you ever tried to climb 
Mt. Whitney? 

6. I insist on your speaking out plainly in open meeting. 

7. But you need not speak bluntly. 

8. Did 3^ou hear him say who were going to attend? 

9. I would not hear your enemy say so. 

10. I will not have you bothering me with useless questions. 

11. I dare say you think my questions annoying. 

12. No, I am simply tired of answering you. 




VERBS 65 



Tense 

The form of the verb which indicates the time in which 
the action takes place is called the tense of the verb. 

Verbs have six different tenses: 

1. An action may take place in the present time: 
Present tense. 

Simple I 2. An action may have taken place in past time: 
Tenses j Past tense. 

3. An action may tal^e place in future time: 
(^ Future tense. 

4. An action may be perfected or completed at 
the present time: Present-perfect tense. 

5. An action may have been perfected or com- 
pleted at some past time: Past-perfect tense. 

G. An action may be considered a^ to be perfected 
or completed at some future time: Future- 
perfect tense 

In the following sentences note the changes made in the 
form of the verb, to show differences in time: 



Perfect' 
Tenses 



1. I hear a bird singing. 

2. Is it the same I heard last night? 

3. I hope I shall-hear it again tomorrow. 

4. I have-heard him three nights, now. 

5. I had-heard him two weeks ago. 

6. If he sings tomorrow night I shall- 
have-heard him three times. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Future tense. 
Present-perfect tense. 
Past-perfect tense. 

Future-perfect tense. 



Observe in the two following sentences two different 
uses of the present tense: 

The Colonel is-riding this morning. 
He rides for an hour every day. 

In the former sentence the verb is-riding asserts action 



66 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

that is going on at the time of speaking; in the latter the 
verb rides asserts action that is habitual: 

When the verb asserts action (1) as taking place, or 
(2) as habitual or customary at the time of speaking, 
it is in the present tense. 
Notice a like difference in the uses of the past tense : 
The Colonel rode his old sorrel mare yesterday. 
When he was younger he rode a Uvelier horse. 

When the verb asserts action, (1) as having taken 
place, or (2) as habitual or customary, in past time, it 
is in the past tense. 

And there is a similar difference in the uses of the future 
tense ; 

The Colonel will-ride tomorrow if the weather permits : 

He will-ride every fine day, year in and year out (or wiU-be-riding) . 

When the verb asserts action which (1) is to take 
place, or (2) will be habitual or customary at some 
future time, it is in the future tense. 

In the next three sentences notice the differences in the 
forms of the verb, and notice carefully how in every case 
the assertion of the verb gives an idea of the action as 
having been completed, (or perfected) at the time specified: 

1. This makes three times he has-ridden round the park. 

2. He had-ridden three times round the park before I came. 

3. He will-have-ridden three times round the park, when he 
reaches this bench. 

The present tense of the auxiliary have with the past 
participle of the verb, forms the present -perfect tense. 

The past tense, had, of the auxiliary have, with the 
past participle of the verb, forms the past-perfect tense. 

The auxiliary shall (or will) and the present of the 
auxiliary have, together with the past participle of the 
verb, form the future-perfect tense. 



VERBS 67 



Tenses in the Passive Voice 

The tenses of the passive voice are regularly made up of 
some form of the auxiliary be with the past participle of a 
transitive verb. They are similar to those of the active 
voice : 

The suit is-being-made this week. Present tense. 

The suit was-being-made last week. Past tense. 

The suit will-be-done by Friday. Future tense. 

The suit has-been-done for two days. Present-perfect tense. 
The suit had-been-done two days before. Past-perfect tense. 
The suit will-have-been-made before your 
return. Future-perfect tense. 

Practice 

I. Change italicized verbs in these sentences to the past 
tense. 

II. Change italized verbs in these sentences to the perfect 
tense. 

III. Change italicized verbs in these sentences to the pas- 
sive voice. 

1. Oh wind a blowing all day long! 

2. Flee as a bird to your mountain. 

3. The bird flies fast and free. 

4. The men are-laying the carpet. 

5. The river overflows its banks. 

6. The book lies on the table. 

7. Mary comes to this school. 

8. George, lajj the book on the table. 

9. The bell rings. 

10. The boy sets the trap. 

11. They sit in the front row. 

12. The birds wake me early every morning. 

13. George swims better than Harry. 

14. Will you alight from your horse? 

15. The birds light on my window every morning. 



\ GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

• 

16. He lights the fire for us every morning. 

17. My mother bids me bind my hair. 

18. It proves to be true. 

19. The sun sets at six tonight. 

20. They throw a Hne out to that boat. 

21. The Japanese merchant bids-in that teak-wood case. 

22. Mary dives hke a fish. 

23. Please break that branch of Hlac for me. 



Correct Use of Tenses 

The only practical difficulties with tenses are in the use of 
the subjunctive mode and verbals, and in dependent phrases 
and clauses. 

1. In the subjunctive mode the expression of statements 
contrary to fact is indicated by the tense employed: 

Thy kingdom come (present tense to express a wish for the 
future). 

Would that the night ivere come (past tense to express a wish 
unfulfilled in the present). 

If I just could have had sense enough to hold my tongue! (past- 
perfect tense to express a wish unfulfilled in past time). 

2. Verbals themselves may be present or past in time. 
But they can merely assert their own action as complete 
or incomplete at the time asserted by the principal verbs 
on which they depend: 

Turning (present participle) to the right we follow (present) the 
main road to the river. 

Turning to the right we followed (past) the main road to the 
river. 

Having given (past participle) our word we are not free (present) 
to break it. 

Having given our word we were not free (past) to break it. 

Your coming (present infinitive) was (past) eagerly expected; 
your going will-be (future) equally regretted. 

Our having-covered (perfect infinitive) the distance in so short a 
time was what he could not (past) understand. 



VERBS 69 

Your having-supported (perfect infinitive) your country's cause 
will (future) always be a source of pride to your friends. 
... For my purpose holds (present) 

To-sail beyond the sunset and the baths 

Of all the western stars until I die. 

To-have-jailed (past infinitive) is (present) a misfortune; not-to- 
have-tried (past infinitive) would-be a disgrace. 

3. In general the tense of the verb in a dependent clause 
should agree with that of the principal statement: 

He knows he can do it if he likes (present). 
He knew he could do it if he liked (past) . 

Of course when the sense positively calls for it the tenses 
of independent and dependent statement may disagree: 
He knows he could-do it, or could-have-done it. 

Again, when the verb of the dependent clause states an 
habitual or customary fact the tense of the dependent verb 
is present regardless of the principal verb: 

Where did you say Yosemite isf 

Practice 
I. Which of the forms in italics is right? 

1. Where did you say Robert is {was) today? 

2. I meant to call {have called) on you yesterday. 

3. Beowulf is {was) a hero of Saxon lore who was supposed to 
kill {to have killed) the great fire drake. 

4. I should not like {have-liked) to have-done it. 

5. I should not have liked to do (to have-done) it. 

6. I don't see how anyone could say that Mary is {was) prettier 
than Alice. 

7. Should you have been willing to drive {to have driven) my car 
for me? 

8. I meant to ask {to have asked) you yesterday. 

9. He asked me to tell him how far it is {was) from New York 
to Boston. 

10. He had not heard that you and she are {were) sisters. 



70 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

11. It would have been impossible for you to prevent {to have pre- 
vented) the accident. 

12. If you will call him he will (would) come. 

13. Who told you that Mary is (was) coming? 

14. She expected to call (to have called) on you tomorrow. 

15. Who would have thought it possible to ride (to have ridden) 
this distance by noon? 

16. I am telegraphing to her so that she may (might) have the 
house ready. 

II. In the following sentences give the mode and tense 
of the verbs and tell how they agree with their subject: 

1. Col. Roosevelt said that a herd of Zebras, running through 
the streets of a town in Africa, knocked a girl from her bicycle. 

2. You may go home when you are through. 

3. John, close the windows. 

4. If I see the boy, I will tell him. 

5. You might bring the boys with you, when you come. 

6. You may bring the girls too, if you wish. 

7. Please bring me my shawl. 

8. This is the forest primeval. 

9. Did you say you would come? 

10. How can you speak so rudely! 

11. You might have been mistaken. 

12. You have been too careless about this matter. 

13. You may ride my horse. 

14. Can you ride that horse? 

15. I can skate across the pond. 

16. May I skate across the pond? 

17. I ought to have written some letters today. 

18. Let not your heart be troubled. 

19. I mailed your letter. 

20. I have mailed your letter. 

21. I had sung my song before my sister came. 

22. I shall give you my book when I finish it. 

23. Had you finished the book, when you gave it to me? 

24. You will have gone twenty miles by the time I have started. 

25. You have broken your string. 

26. Oh, I had broken that before you came. 

27. You will have walked five miles by the time you reach their 
house. 



VERBS 71 

28. I caught the horse. 

29. You should have caught the horse. 

30. He has caught the horse. 

31. The letter has been mailed by the boy. 

III. In the following sentences indicate changes in the 
verbs to show a difference in time; tell the difference in 
meaning: and give the tense and mode of every verb: 

1. He sings tenor. 

2. He sang at the concert last night. 

3. He will sing tonight. 

4. Do you see that hght? 

5. He saw the star fall. 

6. He will see the pictures. 

7. I invite you to the party. 

8. I am inviting the girls to the party. 

9. She invited the girls to the party. 

10. We shall invite the girls to the party. 

11. They will have invited the girls to the party. 

12. I had invited the girls to the party before I received your 
letter. 

Verb-Forms 
In the following sentence are three varieties of assertion: 
If John waits much longer he will-be-delaying the whole expedi- 
tion; I do-wish he'd hurry. 

These varieties are called verb-forms: (1) the Simple, 
(2) the Progressive, and (3) the Emphatic. Only the 
Progressive and the Emphatic need explanation. They 
differ from the Simple Verb-form in always using some 
part of ''be" or ''do" to make the assertion. Even in the 
simpler tenses these forms are compound; they employ 
verb-phrases. 

Progressive Verb-form 

Compare the different forms of the present tense of the 
verb write: 

He writes books. 

He is-writing a book. 



72 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

The first expresses a habit or custom; the second ex- 
presses a particular action in progress at the time of speak- 
ing. 

When some part of the verb "&e" is combined with 
the present participle to show that action is, was, or will- 
be going on, the form is called the progressive verb- form, 
and its phrase the progressive verb-phrase. 

Emphatic Verb-form 

Is he writing a book? I did-hear that he was but I do-not-know. 

When some part of the verb "do^' is placed before the 
simple active verb the form is called the emphatic verb- 
form,, and its phrase the emphatic verb-phrase. 

Rarely the progressive and the emphatic verb-forms are 
combined : 

Do let us he-hurrying or we shall delay the expedition. 

The progressive verb-form is also used in the passive 
voice, in the present and past indicative and the past sub- 
junctive. The emphatic verb-form is found only in the 
active voice, in the present and past indicative, the present 
and past subjunctive, and the present imperative. 

Note: — The emphatic verb-form has come to be used 
idiomatically when no special emphasis is meant: 

/ don't-think-so is less emphatic than, I-think-not-so; 

I-do-not-doubt is less emphatic than, I-doubt-not. 

Practice 

I. Bring to class: 

Five emphatic verb-phrases, each taken from the Bible, Shake- 
speare, Stevenson, or any standard author. 

Let two be in the indicative; two in the imperative; one in the 
subjunctive. 



VERBS 73 

II. Give mode and tense and voice of the following 
progressive phrases: 

She is playing in the garden. 

He wasfiying his kite when I came into the house. 

They will be going home this afternoon. 

You should have been doing your work at that time. 

I am being taught to dance. 

He was being dined when I came into the grounds. 

If he was being shown the house I am sorry I called him so soon. 

If he were being shown the house he would have told us. 

III. Bring in: 

Five progressive verb-phrases from the Bible, three in the in- 
dicative, two in the subjunctive; 

Five progressive verb-phrases selected from Kipling or any 
standard author. Tell mode, tense, voice. 

Person and Number 

The regular verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number; sometimes it requires a change in the form of 
the verb to show this agreement: 

I am; thou art; he is, are exceptional variations; 
I give; thou givest; he gives, are regular variations. 

Similarly the verb sometimes changes its form to denote 
singular or plural number: 

Singular Plural 

The child laughs. The children laugh. 

The child is here, The children are here, 

The child has gone. The children have gone. 

The changes in form of the verb to make the agreement in 
person and number are found in the present and present- 
perfect tenses. But the so-called solemn style (see appendix 
for the conjugation of the verb), and the auxiliaries shall 
and will, and the verb, he, however used, carry their changes 
in form through other tenses. 



74 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Note: — You, though used in the singular, is plural in form 
and always takes a plural verb: 

You were a crack shot even when you were a lad of fifteen. 

Sometimes if the subject is plural in form but singular 
in meaning it takes a singular verb: 

The news is encouraging. 

Physics is the hardest study I have. 

Correct Use of Singular and Plural 

Each, every, many-a, either and neither are singular. When 
the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected 
by or, either- or, neither-nor, the verb must be singular. 
Words joined to the subject by with, together-with, in- 
addition-to, or as-well-as, are parenthetical and do not 
affect the number of the verb. A verb agrees with the 
antecedent of the relative pronoun. 

Practice 

I. Insert the proper form of the verb he in the blank 
spaces : 

1. That kind of apples scarce. 

2. Each of the men provided with a gun. 

3. Neither Mary nor Harry in the right place. 

4. Fifteen minutes spent every morning feeding the birds. 

5. The money as well as the inclination lacking. 

6. Every one of those dogs mine. 

7. Two times five ten. 

8. My aunt with the whole family detained by the storm. 

9. Three spoonfuls of butter enough for that cake. 

II. Which is. the better form? Give reasons: 

1. A boat with two fishermen (has, have) come into the harbor. 

2. The ship with all its crew {were, was) lost. 

3. Kipling is one of the best story writers that {has, have) written 
during the last decade. 



VERBS 75 

4. Bring me one of the shawls that (is, are) lying on my lounge. 

5. You are not the only one that (has, have) been fooled by him. 

6. The greater part of the audience {was, were) charmed by her. 

7. He is one of those singers who (charm, charms) their listeners. 

III. Fill in blanks with the correct verb: 

1. He is down in the hammock watching a squirrel. 

2. After he down he remembered that he had not the 

camp fire for the evening. 

3. Those logs have in the water too long. Do not them 

on the fire; they will not burn. 

4. I Hke to on the ground and look up at the stars when I 

am in the mountains. 

5. those boughs under that tree those old ones have been 

on too long. We on them all last month. 

6. You are them too close to the tree. 

7. The bird has four eggs in that nest. I shall in 

wait for that old cat and if I my eyes on her while she is climb- 
ing toward the nest I will teach her a lesson. 

8. Mary said you had my book on the table and had • 

down for a nap. 

9. You will catch cold if you too near that window. 

10. One of those girls bring the letter. 

11. Some of those girls students. 

12. The class divided in choice. 

13. Mary as well as Charlotte taking lessons of her. 

14. Pontics not interesting to me. 

15. Those kinds of scissors to cut with. 

16. That kind of scissors hard to cut with. 

17. Lives of Greek Heroes the best of all the books in that 

set. 

18. either of you going to the play tonight? 



The Principal Parts 

The principal parts of the verb are: 

Pres. Inf. Past Ind. Pres. Part. Past Part. 
move moved moving moved 

see saw seeing seen 



76 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Principal parts are samples of the verb, chosen to 
show the chief differences in asserting the time and 
manner of the action. 

One or another of these parts may be employed to make 
compound forms: 

I am-momng I did-move I have (had, will-have) moved. 

The principal parts also show whether a verb is regular 
(weak) or irregular (strong). 

Pres. Inf. Past Ind. Pres. Part. Past Part. 



Strong: 


fall 


fell 


falling 


fallen 


Weak: 


fell 


felled 


felling 


felled (= cause to fall) 


Strong: 


lie 


lay 


lying 


lain 


Weak: 


lay 


laid 


laying 


laid (= cause to lie) 


Strong: 


rise 


rose 


rising 


risen 


Weak: 


raise 


raised 


raising 


raised (= cause to rise) 


Strong: 


sit 


sat 


sitting 


sat 


Weak: 


set 


set 


setting 


set (= cause to sit) 



Weak verbs regularly form the past tense by adding 
the ending d, or ed, or t, to the present. 
Strong verbs regularly form the past tense by chang- 
ing the vowel without adding an ending. 

Note: — The verb set though really weak has a slight ir- 
regularity in the past indicative and past participle which 
have dropped the ending because it is hard to unite the 
sound with the final letter of the present indicative. 

Similar verbs are: 

hit hit hitting hit 

put put putting put 

bet bet betting bet 

Strong oe Irregular Verbs 

The following strong verbs are examples of variations 
in form: 



VERBS 



77 





Pres. Inf. 


Past Ind. 


Pres. Part. 


Past Part 


(mixed verbs) 


be 


was 


being 


been 




go 


went 


going 


gone 


(pure verbs) 


bid 


bade 


bidding 


bidden 




bring 


brought 


bringing 


brought 




buy 


bought 


buying 


bought 




choose 


chose 


choosing 


chosen 




do 


did 


doing 


done 




drink 


drank 


drinking 


drunl<: 




fly 


flew 


flying 


flown 




forget 


forgot 


forgetting 


forgotten 




hide 


hid 


hiding 


hidden 




ring 


rang 


ringing 


rung 




seek 


sought 


seeking 


sought 




speak 


spoke 


speaking 


spoken 




take 


took 


taking 


taken 




teach 


taught 


teaching 


taught 




think 


thought 


thinking 


thought 




wear 


wore 


wearing 


worn 




write 


wrote 


writing 


written 


Some verbs have both strong and weak conji 


jgations: 




work 


wrought 


working 


wrought 






worked 


working 


worked 



Note: — For the conjugation of the verb see Appendix A. 



Practice 

I. Give the following forms: 

1. The active progressive of go. 

2. The passive indicative of make. 

3. The passive present progressive of kill. 

4. The active present progressive of love. 

5. The active present, singular, subjunctive of laugh. 

6. The active present progressive of lie (to recline). 

7. The active past and present-perfect of sing. 

8. The infinitives and participles of run. 



78 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

II. Use the correct form of the verb: 

1. I wish you (past-perfect of give) me one. 

2. The airship (past of Jiy) over the field through which the river 
(past of flow) . 

3. They (past of lay) the new stone where the old log (past- 
perfect of lie) so long. 

4. He (past of sit) down on the ground and the children (past 
of lie) in the grass at his feet. 

5. They (past of bring) some flowers and (past of make) a wreath, 
and while they (past-progressive of make) it, he (past of tell) them 
stories. 

6. The boat (past-perfect of go) half an hour when we (past of 
reach) the wharf. 

7. They (past of fell) the tree and let it (lie, lay) where it (past- 
perfect of fall). 

8. He (past of rise) up in bed, reached for the window shade, 
and (past of raise) it. 

9. He (past of set) the water-glass on the table near which he 
(past progressive of sit) . 

10. The water (past of freeze) in the bucket; it has been years 
since water (present-perfect of freeze) in this locality. 

11. If you go out without a wrap you (future of freeze). 

12. I (future-perfect of make) five dresses when this is finished. 

13. (Potential auxiliary showing permission) I go down town? 

14. If (past subjunctive denoting impossibihty) you, I {would 
should) not do that. 



VERBS 



79 



Kind 



Verbs 



3. Verbals 



Voice 



Mode 



Infinitives 



Form ^ Tense 



Used 



Outline Summary 

I Transitive, Intransitive. 
P 1 Strong, Weak, Conjugation. 
Perfect tense auxiliaries: have, has, 

had. 
Future tense auxiliaries: shall and 

will, should and would. 
Potential auxiliaries: ought, must, 
2. Auxiliaries ■! maij, can, might, will, shall, would, 
could, should. 
Emphatic auxiliaries: do, did. 
Progressive auxiliaries: all the forms 

of be. 
Passive auxiliaries: have, and be. 
f Present. 
Participles \ Past. 

[ Perfect, active, passive. 
Present, active, passive. 
Past, active, passive. 
Active. 
Passive. 
Indicative. 
Subjunctive. 
Imperative. 
Present. 
Past. 
Future. 
Perfect. 
I Past perfect. 
[ Future perfect. 
[ First. 
Person \ Second. 
[ Third. 

Number l^^g^l^^- 
[ Plural 

1. Verbs, to assert the action performed or received 

by the subject. 

2. Participles, to serve as adjectives. 

3. Infinitives, to serve as substantives. 



CHAPTER IV 

Adjectives and Adverbs 

Nouns, pronouns, and verbs are enough in themselves 
to make complete sentences. However, taken by themselves 
they cannot express much beyond the simplest ideas. To 
express thoughtfully these parts-of-speech must be modified. 

The chief modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. Adjec- 
tives modify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs; they may also 
modify adjectives and other adverbs. 

Notice how much the writer of the following letter de- 
pends on the modifying words to express his thought: 

The new French teacher "isn't half -bad, ^' as English Harry says. 
He is really a very good fellow. I truly think he likes his dry old 
subject and, what is more, that he likes us, most of us, so that he 
seldom gets angry, even when he can't make out the queer sounds 
we are making. Dull as I am at languages and that sort of thing, 
he even likes me pretty ivell. He likes Tom better, though, and of- 
course he likes the clever Harry best. I hope he will be more success- 
ful than the other men have been; he is the third we have tried in 
two years. What interesting things have been happening to you? 

The, more, most, two, are limiting adjectives. 

New, French, half-had, English, angry, queer, dull, clever, 
successful are descriptive adjectives. 

That, other are pronominal adjectives. 

Really, very, truly, seldom, even, pretty, well, heV-er, of- 
course, best, most are simple adverbs. 

When is a conjunctive adverb. 

What is an interrogative adjective, 

80 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 81 



Adjectives 

Limiting Adjectives 

Articles 
Boys like to play. 
A boy likes to play. 
The healthy boy likes to play. 

Observe these three sentences. You will find there is a 
difference in form, and a difference in meaning, although 
the assertions made by the predicates are the same. The 
change is made in the modifications of the subjects. 

In the first sentence the predicate asserts a characteristic 
common to all boys, and the subject hoys has no modifier. 

In the second sentence the meaning is modified by having 
the subject Hmited to one boy. No special boy is spoken 
of; the assertion is made of any one boy among all boys. 
This modification is denoted by the article a which limits 
the subject. 

In the third sentence the meaning is still further modified 
by having the subject limited to one special boy, and this 
modification is denoted by the word "the^' which limits the 
subject. 

Since a or its other form an, and the are used to 
limit the meaning of nouns they are limiting adjectives: 
they are called articles. 

The article a or an limits indefinitely. 
The article the limits definitely. 

Numerals 
One boy and three girls came. 

In this sentence one and three limit the nouns hoy and girls 
to a definite number. 



82 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

When numerals are used to limit the meaning of 
nouns they are called limiting adjectives. 



Pronominal Adjectives 

Thai hat is mine; this hat is yours, but you may wear that one 
if you hke. 

Neither hat is very becoming, I wish you had another hat. 

In these two sentences we have words that we have been 
studying as pronouns, but they cannot be pronouns here 
because they do not take the place of nouns. The nouns 
are here too, and these pronominal words modify them in 
place of being substituted for them. 

Take the sentences on page 37, Chapter II: 

This is my section, porter, and that is my baggage; these are my 
umbrellas, and those are my valises. 

The same things might be said in the following way: 

This section is mine, porter, and that baggage; these umbrellas 
are mine, too, and those valises. 

When pronouns are used to limit the meaning of 
nouns and are not used as substitutes for them, they be- 
come pronominal adjectives. 

Not only demonstrative pronouns but interrogative? 
relative, and indefinite pronouns may become pronominal 
adjectives: 

Which (pronoun) is my hat? 
Which (adjective) hat is mine? 

Whatever (pronoun) you undertake, work at it with a will. 
Whatever (adjective) task you undertake, work at it with a will. 

Some (adjective) men exercise vigorously, and some (pronoun) 
do not. 



I 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 83 



Practice 

Select the limiting adjectives in the following sentences 
and tell how they limit; note whether they are articles, 
numerals or pronominals: 

A boy's will is the wind's will 

And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts. 

And close behind her stood 

Eight daughters of the plough stronger than men. 

I said: When first the world began, 
Young Nature thro' five cycles ran 
And in the sixth she moulded man. 

This truth within thy mind rehearse. 

That in a boundless universe 

Is boundless better, boundless worse. 

Descriptive Adjectives 
A tall, white house stands within the garden wall. 

In this sentence the words tall and white describe the 
noun house. 

Adjectives which modify the meaning of nouns by 
describing them are called descriptive adjectives* 

Harry wore a Roman coin on his watch-fob. 

In this sentence the word Roman modifies the noun coin 
by describing it; therefore it is a descriptive adjective. 
Roman is an adjective derived from the proper noun Rome. 

When an adjective is derived from a proper noun it 
is called a proper adjective and should always have a 
capital for its initial letter. 

It is better to be a self-controlled man, than a devil-may-care 
fellow. 



84 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

When adjectives are made up of two or more words they 
are called compound adjectives. 

The adjective may complete the assertion of the verb 
at the same time it is describing or Umiting the meaning 
of the subject or the object. 

The ground is white. 

The snow makes the ground white. 

In the first sentence the adjective white completes the 
assertion of the verb and at the same time describes the sub- 
ject. 

When an adjective completes the assertion of the verb 
and describes the subject it is called a predicate adjec- 
tive, or attribute complement. 

In the second sentence the adjective white, as attribute 
of the infinitive to be helps complete the assertion of the 
verb makes and describes the object ground (makes the 
ground to-be white). 

When the adjective helps complete the assertion of the 
verb, and describes the object it is called an attribute 
of the object, or objective complement. 

Practice 

I. Select and classify the adjectives in the following 
sentences: 

1. However, the egg only got larger and larger, and more and 
more human, and when she came within a few yards of it, she saw 
that it had ej^es and a nose and mouth. 

2. The sea was wet as wet could be. 
The sands were dry as dry. 

3. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the Basin of 

Minas, 
Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand-Pr^, 
Dwelt on his goodly acres. 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 85 

4. Everything, from the hght and the lapis-lazuh flagstones, to 
the shimmering background into which the last arches run and 
disappear, everything, down to the smallest objects, is of an un- 
real, intense, fairy-like blue. 

5. Certainly the bird will be blue, since everything here is blue. 
Heavens, how beautiful it all is! 

6. The clouds were pure and white as flocks new shorn, 
And fresh from the clear brook; sweetly they slept 

On the blue fields of heaven, and then there crept 
A little noiseless noise among the leaves, 
Born of the very sigh that silence heaves. 

7. I was light-hearted. 

And many pleasures to my vision started; 
So I straightway began to pluck a posy 
Of luxuries bright, milky, soft and rosy. 

8. Here are sweet peas, on tip-toe for a flight: 
With wings of gentle flush o'er dehcate white, 
And taper fingers catching at all things, 

To bind them all about with tiny rings. 

9. Linger awhile upon some bending plank 
That leans against a streamlet's rushy bank, 
And watch intently Nature's gentle doings: 
They will be found softer than ring-dove's cooings. 

10. And still she slept an azure-hdded sleep, 
In blanched linen, smooth, and lavender'd. 
While he from forth the closet brought a heap 
Of candied apple, quince, and plum, and gourd. 
With jellies soother than the creamy curd, 
And lucent syrops, tinct with cinnamon; 
Manna and dates: spiced dainties, every one, 
From silken Samarcand to cedar'd Lebanon. 



II. Choose from any poem of Temiyson with which you 
are acquainted : 

Ten descriptive adjectives. 

Five descriptive adjectives used as attribute complement. 

Ten pronominal adjectives. 

Ten numerical adjectives. 



86 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Comparison of Adjectives 

Adjectives and adverbs do not make any change in form 
for person and case, and with the exception of the adjec- 
tives this and that, they make no change for number. (Long 
ago they changed in form as the noun changed.) The only 
change they make in form is for the purpose of showing a 
difference in degree of the quahty which the noun possesses. 
This change is called Comparison. 

There are three different degrees of comparison: the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

When the adjective merely names some quality pos- 
sessed by the noun, and does not denote the degree, the 
adjective is in the positive degree: 

This apple is not ripe. 

When the adjective denotes a greater degree of the 
quality of an object than is possessed by some other ob- 
ject with which it is compared, it is in the comparative 
degree: 

This is a riper apple than that one. 

When an adjective denotes a quality as possessed to 
the greatest degree by some object among a number in 
comparison (two or more) , the adjective is in the super- 
lative degree: 

This is the ripest apple in the basket. 

Note the different ways in which the degrees of compari- 
son are shown in the following groups of sentences: 

1. See what a ripe apricot. 
Yes, but here is a riper one. 
Oh, but this is the ripest I have found on tlie tree. 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 87 

2. What an attractive place for the camp. 

Is it more attractive than the spot you found down the canon? 
This is the most attractive spot I have found on the mountain. 

3. Stop and rest; you are tired. 

I sunless tired than you are; you carried that heavy pack. 
I am the least tired of us all; I rode the burro all the way. 

4. This is a bad road. 

Is it worse than the road on the other side of the mountains? 
It seems to me it is the worst road in the county. 

In the first group the comparative degree is formed by 
adding er to the positive, and the superlative degree is 
formed by adding est to the positive; — ripe, -riper, -ripest. 

In the second, third and fourth groups the comparative 
and the superlative degree are formed by the use of different 
words. 

Good,-hetter,-hest;-miich,-more,-most,' ascending scale. 

Bad, worse,-worst;-Uttle, -less, -least,- descending scale. 

Adjectives Irregularly Compared 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

little less least 

„ f farther I farthest 

tar 



[ further [ furthest 



many , 

, } more most 

much 



near nearer 



nearest 
next 



ill 
bad 
good 
well 



worse worst 



better best 



, latter , , 

^^'^ ^ later ^"^^ 



88 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



Some Adjectives Compared In Two Ways 
Positive Comparative Superlative 



vely 


lovelier 




loveliest 




more lovely- 




most lovely 


3le 


abler 




ablest 




more able 




most able. 


Som£ Adjectives Have No Positive Form 


Comparative 


Superlative 


outer 




outmost 
outermost. 


upper 




uppermost 


utter 




uttermost 


iimer 




' imnost 
iimermost 



Rules for the Use of Comparative and Superlative 
Use the comparative degree to indicate a comparison 

between two objects or two sets of objects, or alternative 

objects. 

Use the superlative degree to indicate a comparison 

among all the objects considered. 

Comparative. Apples are finer than oranges. 

Apples are finer than any other fruit. 

Apples are finer than oranges, peaches, or 
apricots. 
Superlative. Apples are the finest of all fruits. 

Note: — In using the comparative form be careful to 
make the latter term exclude the former. Thus the sentence, 
"Apples are finer than any fruit," is nonsense, for apples are 
themselves fruit. Amend the sentence to read, "Apples are 
finer than any other fruit." 

In using the superlative form be careful to make the latter 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 89 

term include the former. Thus the sentence, ''Apples are 
the finest of any other fruit," is nonsense, for apples are 
apples and not other fruit. 

Care in the Use of Adjectives 

When used as pronouns, this and these refer to things 
near to hand; that and those to things farther removed. 

Be careful to use this and that to modify nouns in the 
singular, and these and those to modify nouns in the plural, 
as: 

This apple is sweet; that apple is sour. 
These apples are sweet; those apples are sour. 

This kind of apple is sweet; that kind of apple is sour. 

These kinds of apples are sweet; those kinds of apples are sour. ' 

Be careful in the use of a few and a little: 
Few denotes not many; 
Little denotes not much. 

Give me a few friends and a little money, and T can be contented. 
He has fewer friends and less money than his brother had. 

In using connected nouns which are to be distinguished 
from one another, be careful to repeat the article before 
each, as: 

I do not know which was the more lovely, the vase or the rose. 

When two or more connected adjectives describe one 
object use the article before the first adjective only: 

He wore a blue and green tie. 

But when two or more connected adjectives modify dif- 
ferent nouns, use the article before each adjective: 

He found an orange and an apple orchard. 
He owns a silver and a gold mine. 



90 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Use either and neither when referring to two objects only; 
any and none when referring to more than two: 

Neither hat can be worn. 

You may choose any one of those five ties, or none of them. 

Practice 

I. Indicate the correct adjectives for the following: 

Do you like kind of candy? 

Do you like those of ? 

Mother will give you four of of apples. 

Bring me six of that of roses. 

Bring me five of those of grapes. 

II. Give the degrees of all the adjectives in the following 
sentences : 

1. See what a lovely shell, 
Small and pure as a pearl, 
Lying close to my foot, 
Frail, but a work divine. 
Made so fairily well. 

With delicate spire and whorl, 
How exquisitely minute, 
A miracle of design. 

2. Happy in this, she is not yet so old 
But she may learn; happier then in this. 
She is not bred so dull but she can learn; 
Happiest of all in that her gentle spirit 
Commits itself to yours to be directed. 

3. ''Deafer," said the blameless king, 
''Gawain, and blinder unto holy things 
Hope not to make thyself by idle vows. 
Being too Wind to have desire to see." 

4. The little bird sits at his door in the sun 

Atilt like a blossom among the leaves. 
And lets his illumined being o'errun 
With the deluge of summer it receives; 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 91 

His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings, 

And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings; 

He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest, 

In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best? 

5. son, thou hast not true humihty. 

The highest virtue, the mother of them aU: 

6. Can this be Christmas — sweet as May, 
With drowsy sun, and dreamy air, 
And new grass pointing out the way 
For flowers to follow, every where? 

7. While Kings of eternal evil 
Yet darken the hills about. 
Thy part is with broken sabre 
To rise on the last redoubt; 
To fear not sensible failure, 
Nor covet the game at all, 
But fighting, fighting, fighting. 
Die driven against the wall. 

8. Take temperance to thy breast, 
Whfle yet is the hour of choosing. 
As arbitress exquisite 

Of all that shall thee betide; 
For better than fortune's best 
Is mastery in the using. 
And sweeter than anything sweet 
The art to lay it aside! 



92 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



Outline Summary 



Adjectives 



Kind 



Form 



Use 



1. Limiting ] 

2. Descriptive - 

3. Interrogative 

positive 

comparative 

superlative 

To modify nouns« 



articles 

numerals 

pronominals 

common 

proper 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 93 

Adverbs 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

The simple adverb may denote the time, the place, the 
degree, or the manner in which the verb performs its action; 
or it may denote the degree of the quahty expressed by the 
adjective or by another adverb. 

Edith is coming home tomorrow. Adverb denoting time. 

Jack, come here. Adverb denoting place. 

Richard rode slowly home. Adverb denoting manner. 

He has nearly finished his work. Adverb denoting degree. 

The walls are dark purple. Adverb denoting degree of 

adjective. 

The walls are very dark purple. — Adverb denoting degree 

of adverb. 

Adverbs very closely resemble adjectives. Indeed there 
are some words that without change of form are either 
adjective or adverb, and to decide which part-of-speech a 
given word is, one has to note carefully its use in the sen- 
tence. 

You look very well tonight. 

Well is here used to show condition; therefore it is an 
adjective. 

You did that work well. 

Well is here used to show manner; therefore it is an ad- 
verb. 
James ran so fast 1 could not catch him. 

Fast is here used to show mamier; therefore it is an ad- 
verb. 

What Si fast horse James has! 

Fast is here used to describe horse; therefore it is an ad- 
jective. 



94 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

You may go if you will not walk too far. 

Here far is used to denote distance and place; therefore 
it is an adverb. 

You may be very homesick when you reach that far country. 

Here far is used to describe country; therefore it is an 
adjective. 

Please give me a little more sugar in my tea. 

Here little is used to show degree ; therefore it is an adverb. 

What a little girl you are! 

Here little is used to describe girl; therefore it is an ad- 
jective. 

Come early that you may get a good seat. 

Here early is used to show time ; therefore it is an adverb. 

Mother sent you some of our early corn. 

Here early describes corn; therefore it is an adjective. 

Sometimes it is rather difficult to decide, even by the 
use, whether the word used is an adverb or a predicate ad- 
jective. This is especially true when the word follows such 
a verb as taste, smell, look, seem, sound, feel. (See page 51). 

Practice 

In the following sentences choose the correct modifiers: 

1. That apple tastes {bad badly). 

2. The rat smells the cheese (cautious cautiously). 

3. Mother looks (bad badly ill). 

4. The coat fits (bad badly). 

5. He feels (warmly warm) on the subject of labor unions. 

6. He saw his duty (plain plainly). 

7. The girl looked (shy shyly) at the strangers. 

8. The girl looks (shy shyly). 

Comparison of Adverbs 
Simple adverbs also resemble adjectives in that they 
vary their forms to show different degrees of comparison. 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 95 

The comparative degree of the adverb, Hke that of the 
adjective, is formed by adding er, or by prefixing more or 
less to the positive form. 

Positive fast long far hard short 

Comparative faster longer farther harder shorter 

Superlative fastest longest farthest hardest shortest 

Positive swiftly sweetly warmly 

Comparative more swiftly more sweetly more warmly 

Superlative most swiftly most sweetly most warmly 

Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison: 

Positive ill well much little 

Comparative worse better more less 

Superlative worst best most least 

Practice 

I. Fill in blanks with a proper adverb: 

1. He sings . 4. Her dress was torn. 

2. The fire burns . 5. My father rises . 

3. The men work . 6. Speak if you wish me to 

understand. 

11. Determine what parts of speech the italicized adverbs 
modify and tell whether each adverb denotes time, place, 
manner, or degree: 

1. She drives by our house very often. 

2. Very beautiful pictures are in that magazine. 

3. Always speak kindly hut firmly to wilful children. 

4. He should speak more gently. 

5. You have gone there a great many times. 

6. Step very quietly and don't remain more than ten minutes. 

III. Distinguish between the adverbs and adjectives 
in the following sentences and tell what they denote : 

1. He looks well, and sleeps well^ and works ivell, but he com- 
plains of not feeling well. 



96 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

2. Speak a little lower; the little child is quietly sleeping, and a 
little quiet rest may be all she needs to make her well. 

3. We took the fast train. I never rode so fast before; it was 
too fast to be safe. We reached home for luncheon, but we had to 
fast for breakfast. 

4. What a smoothly running car this is! Your engine must run 
smoothly or it is an unusually smooth road. 

5. It is a calm, peaceful night; the moon beams peacefully and 
calmly down upon the earth and all is quiet and serene. 

Interrogative Adverbs 

Why, how, when, where, etc., when used in asking questions 
are called interrogative adverbs : 

Why did you go home? 

How did you enjoy the concert? 

Where are you going for your vacation this summer? 

When do j^ou start on your camping trip? 

Modal Adverbs 

Perhaps, however, possibly, surely, probably, are adverbs 
which sometimes seem to modify the whole sentence rather 
than the verb or some adjective in the sentence. In this 
use they are called modal adverbs : 

Perhaps, I shall go East this summer. 

The boys could not come, however, so we put off the picnic until 
next Saturday. 

Possibly, you can tell me where I can find the janitor. 

Surely, you will not send that child to school without his breakfast. 

The boys will, probably, wait to hear which school won the ball 
game. 

Correct Use of Negatives 

Modern English does not permit the use of the double 
negative : 

Incorrect: He could not find it nowhere. 
Correct: He could not find it anj^where. 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 97 

The adverbs only, hardly, scarcely, are themselves negative 
in idea; they must not be used with another negative thus 
making a double negative: 

Incorrect: I am not allowed to go to parties only on Fridays. 
Correct: I am allowed to go to parties only on Fridays. 

Incorrect: It was so dark I couldn't hardly see the road. 
Correct: It was so dark I could hardly see the road. 

Incorrect: There was such a crowd when President Wilson 
spoke, there wasn't scarcely standing room. 

Correct: There was such a crowd when President Wilson 
spoke,' there was scarcely standing room. 



Responsives 

The responsives Yes and No are sometimes classed as 
adverbs, but strictly speaking they are not parts-of-speech 
at all. They are words used as substitutes for whole sen- 
tences, limiting the statements to affirmation or denial: 

Did you see the automobile race? Yes = I did see it. 

No = I did not see it. 

Conjunctive Adverbs 

Some adverbs join the principal clauses of a compound 
sentence. Care must be taken to use them properly: either 
a comma and a coordinating conjunction or a semi-colon 
must also be used to connect the clauses: 

The men were in a hurry to go, and so they did not wait for you 
to return. 

The men were in a hurry to go; so they did not wait for you to 
return. 

Some of the conjunctive adverbs are: so, thus, also, hence, 
consequently, moreover, still, nevertheless, therefore, however. 



98 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Subordinating Conjunctive Adverbs 

When adverbs join subordinate clauses to the words in 
the sentence which they modify, they are subordinating 
conjunctions; as, when, where, while, since, though, although, 
as-if, if, than, before, until, till, unless, for, wherever, whenever, 
whereas, etc: 

I shall go down town when school is out. 

You should see our library while you are here. , 

They will arrive at six o'clock if the train is on time. 

Some Special Distinctions 
Some and Somewhat. 

Some is a pronominal adjective: I have some money. 
Somewhat is an adverb : I am somewhat low in funds. 

Good and Well. 

Good is an adjective: He does good work. 

Well is either an adverb or an adjective: He works well 
(adverb). He is not well (adjective) enough to work. 

Only and Alone. 

Alone is an adjective: ''Sinn Fein," the name of the Irish 
party, means "Ourselves alone'' (adjective). 

Only is either an adverb or an adjective: The car stops 
at this crossing only (adjective). No, it only (adverb) slows; 
it doesn't stop. 

Practice 

I. Select the adjectives and adverbs and tell how they 
are used: 

Ah, there you are, my little Master! . . . How well you look and 
how pretty, this evening! I went before you to announce 3''0ur 
arrival. AH is going well. We shall have the Blue Bird tonight, 
I am sure. I have just sent the Rabbit to beat the troop in order 
to convoke the principal animals of the country. You can hear 
them already among the foliage. Listen! They're only a Uttle 
shy and dare not come near. 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 99 

II. Select the adverbs and tell what they denote: 

1. Come, dear children, let us away; 

Down and away below! 
Now my brothers call from the bay, 
Now the great winds shoreward blow, 
Now the salt tides seaward flow; 
Now the wild white horses play, 
Champ and chafe and toss in the spray. 

Children dear, let us away! 

This way, this way! 

2. Why did you melt your waxen man, 

Sister Helen? 
Today is the third since you began. 
The time was long, yet the time ran, 
Little brother. 

3. Under the wide and starry sky, 
Dig the grave and let me lie. 
Glad did I live and gladly die, 
And I laid me down with a will. 

This be the verse you grave for me, 
Here he lies where he longed to be; 
Home is the sailor, home from sea, 

And the hunter home from the hill. 

# 

4. Let the blow fall soon or late, 
Let what will be o'er me; 
Give the face of earth around. 

And the road before me. 
Wealth I ask not, hope nor love, 
Nor a friend to know me ; 
All I seek the heaven above 
And the road below me. 

III. In the following sentences choose the correct form — 
adjective or adverb — and give the reason for your choice: 

L Handle the test tube (careful, carefully). 

2. He looks very (bad, badly). 

3. School — Drive (slow, slowly). 

4. He acted very (different, differently) from what I expected. 



100 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

5. {Sure, surely) I will go. 

6. Walk {quick, quickly) and jow will be in time. 

IV. Choose between the comparatives and superlatives 
in the following sentences: 

1. Which is the (larger, largest) San Francisco, or New Orleans? 

2. The (older, oldest) of the two sisters is married. 

3. Which do you like (better, best) grapes or peaches? 

4. Which do you find (easier, easiest), English or Latin? 

5. John seems to have (the best judgment of any, better judg- 
ment than any) boy in school. 

V. Fill in blanks with either some or somewhat and give 
reason for the choice: 

1. My mother is better this morning; she has taken 

breakfast. 

2. There is doubt about his coming back to school this term, 

though he is surer of coming than he was. 

VI. Fill in blanks with either good or well and give resaon 
for choice: 

Is your sick friend getting ? 

His health isn't very but for one who has been so iU he is 

progressing very . 

VII. In the following sentences distinguish the different 
uses of alone and of only, whether adjective or adverb: 

1. Only North-Loop cars stop at this crossing. 

2. They stop only to let off passengers. 

3. He doesn't play base-ball; he only plays foot-ball. 

4. He only won two games of the set. 

5. He wasn't really playing; he only played at playing. 

6. Only members (members alone) have the right to vote. 

7. The weather wasn't disagreeable; it was only very warm. 

8. He alone steps from the van of the freemen, 
He alone sinks to the rear and the slaves. 

VIII. Bring into class seven sentences, each successively 
containing one of the several adjectives and adverbs following: 

each latest pretty 

every last prettily 



ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 



101 



Adverbs ^ 



Kind 



Form 



Use 



Outline Summary 

f 1. Simple 

I • f hence, whence, 

\ 2. Conjunctive j where, when, 

[ because, if. 
[ 3. Interrogative 

[ 1. Positive 

j 2. Comparative 

I 3. Superlative 

C verbs 

1. To modify \ adjectives 

[ adverbs 

2. To join clauses. 



CHAPTER V 

Prepositions 

Note the italicized words in the following passage. 

By afternoon we had come to the desert and could see the un- 
broken level ahead-of us. Into it we went without realizing what 
fate had in store for us. From that moment our journey became a 
chapter of accidents. At-onae our motor began to '^skip," and 
within an hour it had "gone dead" on our hands. Luckily another 
car drew up along-side-of ours, and the motorist kindly towed us 
the rest of the way through the sandy waste, by-means-of a rope he 
had brought with him. 

A preposition is a word used with a noun or pro- 
noun, always in the objective case, to make a phrase 
which limits some other word. 

While the preposition regularly consists of one word, 
certain groups of related words, such as in-place of, instead- 
of, along-with, etc., are idiomatically used as prepositions. 

A preposition is regularly followed by a noun or pronoun. 
Sometimes, however, a preposition may idiomatically be 
followed : 

By an adjective: 

She was lovely in a dress of blue. 

By an adverb: 

Come at once. 

By another preposition: 

It fell from above. 

By a phrase: 

I have had replies from about thirty of my invitations. 
Did you hear about that man^s falling from the roof? 

102 



PREPOSITIONS 103 

However, in all these cases the words following the preposi- 
tions either imply nouns or have the force of nouns. 

A dress of-blue = A dress of blue cloth. 
At-once = At this instant. 
From-above = From above our heads. 
''About thirty, etc.," and ''That man's falling" are 
noun-phrases (see Chapter VIII). 

Use of Prepositions 

A preposition may be used to relate its object: 
To a noun: 

He wore a ring of-gold. 
To a pronoun: 

He of-the-lion-heart led the onset. 
To an adjective: 

Radiant with light, the house welcomed us. 
To an adverb: 

Exactly to the minute the train started. 

Practice 

Select the prepositions in the following and explain their 
objects: 

1. I would sometimes lie down, and let five or six of them dance 
on my hand; and at last the boys and girls would venture to come 
and play at hide-and-seek in my hair. I had now made a good 
progress in understanding and speaking their language. 

2. The Emperor had a mind, one day, to entertain me with 
several of the country shows. I was diverted with none so much 
as that of the rope-dancers, performed upon a slender white thread 
extending about two feet and twelve inches from the ground, upon 
which I shall desire liberty with the reader's patience to enlarge a 
Httle. 



104 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

3. The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, 
For talking age or whispering lovers made! 

4. Thanks, my Lord, for your venison, for finer or fatter 
Never ranged in a forest, or smoked in a platter; 

So I cut it, and sent it to Reynolds undrest, 

To paint it or eat it, just as he liked best. 

Of the neck and the breast I had next to dispose; 

'Twas a neck and a breast might rival Monroe's ; 

But in parting with these I was puzzled again. 

With the how, and the who, and the where, and the when. 

5. Piping down the valleys wild. 
Piping songs of pleasant glee, 
On a cloud I saw a child. 
And he, laughing, said to me: 
''Pipe a song about a lamb," 
So I piped with merry cheer. 
"Piper, pipe that song again," 
So I piped: he wept to hear. 

6. The year's at the spring 
And day's at the morn; 
Morning's at seven; 

The hillside's dew-pearled; 
The lark's on the wing; 
The snail's on the thorn; 
God's in his Heaven — 
All's right with the world! 

Correct Use of Prepositions 

Among, between : 

Use among when you wish to refer to more than two per- 
sons or things, or groups of persons or things. 
Use between when you wish to refer to two only: 

Though there may be differences between our two schools we 
three can settle them among us. 

By, with: 

Use by when you wish to denote the doer of an action: 
The bird was shot by my brother. 



PREPOSITIONS 105 

Use with generally when you wish to denote the instru- 
ment with which the action was performed: 

He shot it with a rifle. 

Beside, Besides: 

Use beside when you mean by the side of. 
Use besides when you mean in addition to; 

May I sit beside you? 

Is any one besides your brother coming? 

In, into: 

Use in when you wish to denote presence inside of, or 
within. 

Use into when you wish to denote passing from without 
to the inside of: 

You can walk about in a room, but you will first have to go 
into the room. 

In, on: 

In is more definite than on. 
On denotes location only. 

Some words require special prepositions : 

Agree with a person, or an opinion. 

Agree to a statement, arrangement, proposal, plan, etc. 

Comply with a request, desire, etc. 

Confide in a friend (trust in a friend) . 

Confide a secret to. 

Correspond to or with a thing. 

Correspond (exchange letters) with a person. 

Make remarks derogatory to. 

Differ from a person or thing (be different) . 

Differ with a person, an opinion (disagree with). 

Be disappointed in what we have. 

Be disappointed of what we cannot get. 



106 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Part from or with. 

Have a taste of or for food. 

Have a taste for sports. 

Be reconciled to or with. 

Show sympathy with or for a person. 

Practice 

I. Choose the correct prepositions for the following 
sentences: 

1. She confided in (to) me when she was in trouble. 

2. Robert often differs from (with) me when we talk politics. 

3. Mother is in (at) New Orleans, stopping at (in) the St. Charles 
Hotel. 

4. I was disappointed in (of) my visit owing to Mother's illness. 

II. Fill each blank with its proper preposition: 

1. My brother is living Boston. 

2. whom did you receive that beautiful cabinet? 

3. whom are you stopping? 

4. whose house will you stop? 

5. whom can I depend for help? 

6. whom were you told that I would not sing? 

7. They divided the apple the three children. 

8. They put the flag the roof of the house. 

9. The man ran the house. 

10. We clamber out the roof of the veranda. 

11. The men are putting the coal the cellar. 

12. He died smallpox. 

13. Did you say the man was killed his hired man? 

14. That is the car which the race was won. 

15. He let his bucket fall the well. 

16. There is need great patience. 

17. He is different his brother in that he is inchned to rush 

speculations. 



18. This is different what you led me to expect. 

19. The other house was palatial compared this. 

20. He was overcome laughter. 

21. You must conform the rules of the Club. 



PREPOSITIONS 107 

22. Fondness drink led to his ruin. 

23. The president could not agree his cabinet, and he was 

not always ready to agree their proposals. 

24. The two companies were merged one. 

25. She often drove town her husband. 

26. His will is apt to make trouble the two families. 

27. Hildredth, divide the money the three children. 

III. Show which prepositions are not needed in the 
following sentences: 

1. No one could help from liking Jack, he is so jolly. 

2. Can you push the boat off of that rock? 

3. At about what time will the game begin? 

4. After having walked a mile, I came in sight of the house. 

5. Our house is near to the road. 

6. We went on to the boat and the captain took us up on to the 
upper deck. 

7. Hang the flag out of the window. 

8. M}^ little brother fell off of his pony. 

9. Let us build a wall of fifty feet in length. 

10. Mary will take those books off from the table, if you wish 
her to do so. 

11. As I stood pondering upon which road to take, my father 
drove along. 

12. From thence we rode to Santa Barbara. 

IV. Select prepositions and denote the relation between 
the object and the word modified: 

1. Flower in the crannied wall, 

I pluck you out of the crannies, 
I hold you here, root and all, in my hand. 
Little flower — but if I could understand 
Wliat you are, root and all, and all in all, 
I should know what God and man is. 

2. The moon was afloat 
Like a golden boat 

On the sea-blue depths of the sky, 

When the miller of Dee 

With his children three 

On his fat, red horse rode by. 



108 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

3. In Xanadu did Kubla Khan 

A stately pleasure-dome decree 
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran 
Through caverns measureless to man 
Down to a sunless sea. 

4. The People of the Eastern Ice, they are melting like the snow, 
They beg for coffee and sugar; they go where the white men go, 
The People of the Western Ice, they learn to steal and fight; 
They sell their furs to the trading-post; they sell their souls to 

the white. 
The People of the Southern Ice, they trade with the whaler's 

crew; 
Their women have many ribbons, but their tents are torn and 

few. 
But the People of the Eldes Ice, beyond the white man's ken — 
Their spears are made of the narwhal-horn, and they are the 

last of the Men. 

5. Man goes to man! Cry the challenge through the Jungle! 
He that was our Brother goes away. 

Hear, now, and judge, ye People of the Jungle, — 
Answer, who shall turn him — who shall stay? 

Man goes to man! He is weeping in the Jungle! 
He that was our Brother sorrows sore! 
Man goes to man! (Oh, we loved him in the Jungle!) 
To the Man-Trail where we may not follow more. 

6. Our ship was about 120 tons burthen; carried six guns and 
fourteen men, besides the master, his boy, and myself. We ha4 
on board no large cargo of goods, except of such toys as were fit for 
our trade with the negroes, — such as beads, bits of glass, shells, 
and odd trifles, especially little looking-glasses, knives, scissors, 
hatchets and the like. 

The wave that came upon me again, buried me at once twenty 
or thirty feet deep in its own body, and I could feel myself carried 
with a mighty force and swiftness towards the shore a very great 
way; but I held my breath, and assisted myself to swim still forward 
with all my might. 

I was now landed, and safe on shore, and began to look up and 
thank God that my life was saved in a case wherein there was 
some minutes before scarce any room to hope. 



PREPOSITIONS 109 



7. A late lark twitters from the quiet skies; 
And from the west, 
Where the sun, his day's work ended, 
Lingers as in content. 
There falls on the old, gray city 
An influence luminous and serene, 
A shining peace. 

The smoke ascends 

In a rosy-and-golden haze. The spires 

Shine, and are changed. In the valley 

Shadows rise. The lark sings on. The sun 

Closing his benediction, 

Sinlcs, and the darkening air, 

Thrills with a sense of the triumphing night — 

Night, with her train of stars 

And her great gift of sleep. 

So be my passing! 

My task accomplished and the long day done, 

My wages taken, and in my heart 

Some late lark singing. 

Let me be gathered to the quiet west, 

The Sundown splendid and serene, 

Death. 



no 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



Outline Summary 

II. Simple: to, for, on, etc. 
2. Compound: in-place-of, beside-of, over- 
and-above, etc. 



Prepositions 



Form \ Make no change in form. 



I To connect nouns and pronouns to other 
words, so as to show the relation be- 
tween the connected words. 



CHAPTER VI 

Interjections 

The interjections, or exclamatory words and phrases, 
have been italicized in the following sentences: 

Whatf the man is not really your brother! No, indeed! He is 
only my step-brother. Look! You can see there is no family re- 
semblance. 

An interjection is a word of exclamation, used either 
independently or to modify the sentence as a whole. 

In the first sentence the interjection, what, changes the 
sentence from an ordinary declaration to an exclamatory 
question, but it modifies no one part. The imperative 
interjection, look, stands by itself. 

Interjections make no change in form or use. 

The most common are: 

0! Oh! Ah! Alas! Lo! Amen! Hurrah! 

Other parts-of-speech become interjections when used in 
an exclamatory sense: 

Never! Indeed! What! 

The imperative may be an interjection: 

Look! Stand! Hurry! Stop! 

Groups of words having an exclamatory sense may form 
phrase interjections: 

Great-Heavens! By-Jove! One-moment! Thank-Heavens! 



Ill 



CHAPTER VII 

Conjunctions 

Observe the relations among the parts of sentences, in 
the three following groups: 

Father and son look and speak alike. 
John as-well-as Henry resembles his father. 
Neither John nor Henry resembles his father. 

To laugh and to grow fat is about all some men live for. 
Either from weakness or from cowardice he would not fight. 
Whether in the body or out of the body, I know not. 

When I am twenty-one years old and (when I am made) a voter 
I shall decide which party to join. 

As-far-as we could judge the man's story was true. 

Because you have been frank with me I am going to tell you 
the whole truth. 

7/ you are exacting or irritable you will lose friends. 

Though I do not altogether like the man yet I voted for him. 

I am going to Los Angeles but I shall not visit San Francisco. 

Conjunctions are words used to join words, phrases, 
and clauses, and to show their mutual relations. 

Note: — As word-connectives conjunctions differ from 
prepositions: (1) prepositions relate nouns, pronouns, or 
equivalents, to words of nearly every sort; conjunctions 
can only join words of the same sort; (2) prepositions 
with their nouns, pronouns, or equivalents make gram- 
matical phrases (see page 129) ; conjimctives never. 
In the sentence: — John is different from (preposition) 
James; he is manlier than (conjunction) James, the words 
from-James form a grammatical phrase, the words than- 

112 



CONJUNCTIONS 



113 



James do not, for than belongs as much to the word John 
as to the word James. It really joins the two sen- 
tences: — ^John-is-manlier than James-is-manly. 
Kinds 

Conjunctions are of two general kinds: 

1. Coordinating conjunctions are those which join words, 
phrases, and clauses of equal rank. The chief coordinating 
conjunctions are: 

and^ accordingly, also, again, besides, consequently, further- 
more, likewise, moreover, so; 

hut, however, nevertheless, nor, still, yet. 

The latter group are sometimes called disjunctives. 

2. Subordinating conjunctions are those which join 
clauses of unequal rank. 

The chief subordinating conjunctions may be grouped 
into six classes, according to their uses: 

Cause Purpose Condition Concession Comparison Time 



Result 








as to 


if 


albeit as 


after 


because that 


unless 


although than 


as 




(= if not) 


nevertheless 




consequently 


whenever 


notwithstanding 


before 


for lest 








(= that 


not) 


though whereas 


since 


hence 


wherever 


while while 


until 


since 


whether 


yet 


unto 


therefore 






when 


whereas 






whence 

whenever 

while 



Note: — Some subordinating conjunctions have more 
than one kind of use: 

As (time) I was passing a haberdasher's shop I saw displayed in 
the front window an irresistible necktie, and as (cause) I happened 



114 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

to have enough money in my pocket I resolved to buy it. While 
(concession) I was not in pressing need of a new necktie still I make 
it my rule to buy such things while (time) they can be had. 

Note: — Some conjunctions are either coordinating or sub- 
ordinating: 

Rain began to drizzle; so (and therefore) we raised our umbrellas 
(coordinating). 

It doesn't matter when you come so (if only) j^ou come soon 
(subordinating) . 

I was walking aimlessly along the street lohen (and then) a familiar 
voice saluted me (coordinating). 

Be sure you bring your knitting with j^ou when (at the time) you 
come (subordinating). 

He is a shrewd politician; yet (but) he is not a great political 
leader (coordinating). 
Though He slay me yet (still) will I trust Him (subordinating). 



Correlative Conjunctions 

Correlative conjunctions are related in pairs which to- 
gether join words, phrases, and clauses. The principal 
ones are : 

either — or neither — nor 

as-well — as not so — as 

as — as not — but also 

as — so not only not — not even 

both — and 

now — now 

though — yet 

whether — or 

.Either George or Jack will gladly do the errand for you. 
Neither Henry nor James is so good a player as Tom used to be. 



CONJUNCTIONS 115 



Phrase Conjunctions 

When groups of related words have the use of conjunctions 
they are called phrase-conjunctions. 

as-far-as in-spite-of 

as-good-as on-the-contrary 

as-long-as on-the-one-hand 

as-soon-as on-the-other-hand 

as-well-as so-as 

as-if so-that 

in-case-that to-begin-with 

inasmuch-as that-not 
in-order-that 

Adverbs and Conjunctions. 

Many adverbs and adverbial expressions are used as 
conjunctions: 

As far as the east is from the west so far hath He removed our 
transgressions from us (adverbial uses) . ' 
As far as pluck is concerned he has plenty (conjunction). 

He took the instructions to be a hoax and acted accordingly. 
He was offended at the man's rudeness; accordingly (conjunction) 
he would not recognize him. 

However (adverb) you look at it, you must admit the fact. 
He is going to make a muddle of his career; however (conjunc- 
tion) he is of age and must manage his own affairs. 

Practice 

I. Select conjunctions, tell their kind, what they connect, 
and the meaning they express: 

1. Mary or David will take the message for you. 

2. I do not know whether the boy asked for Jack or for Gill. 

3. They will either ride over in their machine, or they will 
come by train. 



116 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

4. The baby will not sing to anyone but her mother. 

5. She would not sing any song but that. 

6. I intend to go, but I intend to return. 

7. I cannot go until he comes. 

8. Tom will take us for a ride after he has finished that game 
of tennis. 

9. Harry, you may as well finish that story since you are so 
interested in it. 

10. As I was coming through the orchard I heard a thrush singing. 

11. I hope that as long as I live I may not pass such another night. 

12. As soon as you have finished your letter, will you go for a 
walk with me? 

13. Did you feed the chickens before you left home? 

14. I did not finish the story because it is too long. 

15. I will give you a rose if you will wait until I can pick it. 

16. Mother says I may not go unless you will go with me. 

17. She lives either in that house or in the next one. 

18. The purse was neither in the drawer nor on the table. 

19. It is easy both to judge and to condemn. 

20. Not only the mother but also the baby is very ill. 

21. He has courage as well as patience. 

22. I can manage the car as well as you can. 

23. He is taller than James. 

II. Select all the conjunctions in the following excerpts, 
tell what they show and classify them as to meaning: 

1. Sweet son, for there be many who deem him not; 
Or will not deem him, wholly proven King — 
Albeit in mine own heart I knew him king 
When I was frequent with him in my youth. 

2. And there were cries and clashings in the nest. 
That sent him from his senses. 

3. Still we say as we go: — 
Strange to thinl<: by the way. 
Whatever there is to know. 
That shall we know some day. 

4. But no word comes from the dead: 
Whether at all they be. 

Or whether as bond or free, 

Or by what spell they have sped. 



CONJUNCTIONS 117 

5. You may call a jay a bird. Well, so he is, because he has 
feathers on him; otherwise he is just as human as you are. 

Yes, Sir; a jay is everything that a m.an is. A jay can laugh, a 
jay can gossip, a jay can feel ashamed, just as well as you do — 
maybe better. And there is another thing : in good, clean, out-and- 
out scolding, a blue jay can beat anything alive. 

6. Bo-bo was in the utmost consternation, as you may think, 
not so much for the sake of the tenement, which his father and he 
could easily build up again with a few dry branches, and the labor 
of an hour or two, at any time, as for the loss of the pigs. 

''0 father, the pig, the pig! Do come and taste how nice the burnt 
pig eats." 

The ears of Ho-ti tingled with horror. He cursed his son, and he 
cursed himself that ever he should beget a son that could eat burnt 

pig- 

7. If you can talk with crowds and keep 3^our virtue, 

Or walk with Kings — nor lose the common touch, 
If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you, 

If all men count with you, but none too much; 
If you can fill the unforgiving minute 

With sixty seconds' worth of distance run, 
Yours is the Earth and everything that's in it, 

And — which is more — you'll be a man, my son! 

Correct Use of Conjunctions 

Be careful not to omit conjunctions necessary to the 
sense : 

Incorrect: A Pierce Arrow is as good if not better than a 
Packard. 
Correct: A Pierce Arrow is as good as a Packard if not better. 

Be careful to place each term of the correlative so that 
there can be no doubt as to the words and ideas they are 
intended to connect: 

Incorrect : Father gave me not only the Electric but taught me 
how to run it also. 

Correct: Father not only gave me the Electric, but he also 
taught me how to run it. 



118 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Except has sometimes been used as a conjunction, but 
the best present usage allows except as a preposition only; 
unless is the proper substitute: 

That which thou sowest cannot be quickened except it die. 

Without is another word sometimes used as a conjunction 
when unless would more nearly give the meaning: 

I mil not give it to you without you promise to take care of it. 
Better form: I will not give it to j^ou U7iless you promise to 
take care of it. 

Like is never a conjunction, although often incorrectly 
used instead of as, or as-if: 

Correct: I did that example as you did it (not, like you did it). 
Correct: It looks as-{/ it would snow (not, like it would). 

Practice 

I. Fill in blanks with the proper word, like, as, or as-if: 

1. She likes to study mathematics I Uke to study English. 

2. Father says that Tom looks Mother did when she was 

young. 

3. She looks she were ill. 

4. It looks it might rain before morning. 

5. Don't you wish you could sing he can? 

II. Write sentences showing careful discrimination in 
the use of the following connectives, telling in every case 
what the connective shows: 

Yet, still, but, and, while, so, whereas, however, since, because, 
therefore, hence, for, nevertheless, as far as, not only — but also. 



CONJUNCTIONS 



119 



Kind 



Conjunctions 



Outline Summary 



1. Coordinating 



2. Subordi- 
nating 



(a) Simple: both, and, or, 
than, etc. 



(b) Correl- 
ative 



either — or 
neither — nor 
both — and 
as well as 
not — only 
but — also 



(a) Simple 



if, so, yet, after, 
unless, until, be- 
cause, when, 
while, where, etc. 



(b) Phrase- 
conjunc- 
tions 



as far as 
as good as 
as soon as 
as if 

in order that 
as though 
so that 



Form \ Do not change their form 



Used to connect words, 
1. Coordinating j phrases or clauses of equal 
rank. 



Use 



2. Subordi- 
nating 



f Used to connect subordi- 
I nate clauses with independ- 
I ent clauses 



CHAPTER VIII 

The Sentence 

As we have seen, a group of words expressing a complete 
thought is called a sentence. We are now going to study 
some of the ways in which a sentence may express a com- 
plete thought. 

The two essential parts of a sentence are the subject 
and the predicate. 

The subject names the performer of the action asserted 
by the intransitive or the transitive verb: 

John struck the ball. 

The hall was struck by John. 

The predicate is the most vital part of the sentence be- 
cause it asserts the thought or action of the sentence. 

We might express a complete thought by means of the 
verb alone, as — '^March!" ''Go!" etc., the subject being 
unexpressed although understood. 

But the predicate itself very often needs something be- 
sides the verb to complete its meaning. Then a complete- 
ment or complement becomes one of the essential parts of 
the sentence. 

The sentence is expanded and limited by modifying words 
and phrases and clauses: and the various parts are linked 
and related by connectives. These modifying elements 
are not the essential parts of the sentence; consequently, 
they do not rank in importance with the subject, or the 
predicate. 



120 



THE SENTENCE 121 

Forms of Sentences 

Sentences are classified as to their forms into: (1) simple 
sentences, (2) complex sentences, (3) compound sentences. 
All three are to be found in the following brief letter: 

Dear John, 

(1) The game comes off tomorrow. (2) If you wish 
to see it you must come tonight. (3) Take the limited, and 
be sure to bring your sister. 

A sentence that contains hut one complete statement, 
command, or question is called a simple sentence. 
A sentence that contains one complete statement, com- 
mand, or question, and one or more dependent state- 
ments, commands, or questions, is called a complex 
sentence. 

A sentence that contains two or more complete state- 
ments, commands, or questions, is called a compound 
sentence. 

Simple Sentences 

A simple sentence may contain: 
more than one subject; 

Harry and Jack are both good fielders. 

more than one verb; 

Harry and Jack both field and bat well. 

more than one complement; 

The boys are gathering wood and brush. 

a compound subject, a compound verb, a compound 
complement, and modifying phrases. 

Hamj and Jack both cut and hauled wood and brush for the camp- 
fire, this evening. 



122 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

Compound Sentences 

Sentences may be compound in either or both of two 
ways : 

1. conjunctively; 

He is a good fellow, and I like him. 

2. disjunctively; 

He may be a good fellow hut I do not like him. 

3. both; 

He is a good fellow and he is very popular, yet I do not hke him. 
He is a good fellow and I like hut do not greatly admire him. 

Complex Sentences 

Complex sentences are of three orders: 

1. Those containing one independent and at least one 
dependent statement: 

(a) If you disobey me (b) I shall certainly punish you. 

2. Those containing at least two independent and at least 
one dependent statement, the compound-complex sentence : 

(a) I forbid you to go and (a) I shall certainly punish you (b) if 
you disobey me. 

3. Those containing at least one independent and at least 
two correlative dependent statements; the complex-com- 
pound : 

(a) When you are old and grey and full of sleep, 

(a) And sitting by the fire, (b) take down this book. 

Complex-compound sentences may also contain sub- 
dependent clauses: 

(a) We entered this war (b) because violations of right had 
occurred (c) which touched us to the quick (c) and made the life 
of our people impossible (d) unless they were corrected (d) and the 
world secured, once for all, against their recurrence. 



THE SENTENCE 123 

Care in Punctuating Sentences 

Aeroplanes have at last flown across the ocean, they will soon 
be carrying passengers. 

Here we have two principal clauses joined by a comma, 
as one sentence. 

Corrected, — as, two simple sentences: 

Aeroplanes have at last flown across the ocean. 
They will soon be carrying passengers. 

Or, corrected as compound sentences with a comma and 
coordinating conjunction connecting the two clauses: 

Aeroplanes have at last crossed the ocean, and they will soon be 
carrying passengers. 

Or the comma and conjunction omitted and the semi- 
colon substituted: 

Aeroplanes have at last crossed the ocean; they will soon be 
carrying passengers. 

Avoid : 

(1) The mistake of writing a subordinate clause as a 
sentence : 

Wrong: I bought a new motor " bike." Which I have been needing 
for sometime. 

Right: I bought a new motor "bike" which I have needed for 
some time. 

(2) The mistake of writing a phrase as a sentence: 

Wrong : Father said he would buy me a new motor boat. Perhaps 
for my birthday in April. 

Right: Father said he would buy me a new motor boat, perhaps 
for my birthday in April. 

Practice 

Correct the mistakes in the following sentences, and ex- 
plain each mistake: 

1. You will find the fishing fine in that river it is a shady spot. 

2. I didn't know you lived there, when did you move? 



124 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

3. My teacher liked the song, she had me sing it three times. 

4. Are you to sing or to play I don't remember which you chose. 

5. One half the apples are here the others are in the cellar. 

6. Flying is a dangerous sport. Especially in cloudy weather. 

7. I want to express my sympathy I heard of your accident last 
night. 

8. The butterfly is a most beautiful insect, with a magnifying 
glass examine its wings and you will agree with me. 



Kinds of Sentences 

Sentences are classified according to the manner in which 
their assertions are made: — 

1. Declarative sentence: 

John brought the Packard home last night. 

2. Interrogative sentence: 

Shall you need the machine this afternoon? 

3. Imperative sentence: 

Please, Harry, do keep a firm hand on the wheel. 

4. Exclamatory sentence: 
How smoothly the machine runs! 

1. A sentence which states a fact is called a declarative 
sentence. 

2. A sentence which asks a question is called an in- 
terrogative sentence. 

3. A sentence which expresses a command, or an en- 
treaty is called an imperative sentence. 

4. A sentence which expresses strong feeling in the 
manner of an exclamation is called an exclamatory 
sentence. 

Note: — The type of sentence can be indicated by punctu- 
ation : 



THE SENTENCE 125 

Every sentence should begin with a capital letter. 

The declarative sentence and generally the imperative 
sentence should end with a period. 

The interrogative sentence should end with an interro- 
gation point. 

The exclamatory sentence should end with an exclamation 
point. So rarely may the imperative sentence. 

Note: — One kind of sentence may include another: 

1. A declarative sentence may include a direct quotation 
expressed as a question, or as a command, or as an exclama- 
tion. 

Declarative sentence including a question : 

The boy ran about the house asking of everyone, "Have you 
seen my books or my hat?" 

Declarative sentence including a command : 

The boy ran about the house demanding of everyone, ''Help 
me find my books and my hat." 

Declarative sentence including an exclamation : 

The boy ran about the house shouting, ''We have won the 
game!" 

2. An interrogative sentence may include a declaration, a 
command, or an exclamation: 

Did you hear him say, "I will bring the book tonight"? 
Interrogative sentence including a command: 
Did you hear the man call, "Lower the flag"? 

Interrogative sentence including an exclamation: 
Did you hear the child cry, "Fire! Fire!"? 



126 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



Practice 

I. Select and name the different kinds of sentences in 
the following : 

1. The man cried, ''Will no one come to help me?" 

2. Did you hear Mary say to her Mother, "I am not going to 
the party tonight"? 

3. Tell the men that the boat has been sighted. 

4. Ask yourself, "What have I done to help my brother?" 

5. Did you hear Mary say to her Mother that she was not going 
to the party? 

6. Ask yourself what you have done to help your brother. 

7. "Fire! Fire!", the man shouted in the hall. 

8. The man shouted, "Fire! Fire!" 

9. Did the man shout "Fire! Fire!"? 

10. Did you say that the man shouted, "Fire! Fire!"? 

II. That the man shouted, "Fire! Fire!" can not be denied. 

12. *'Fire! Fire!", shouted the man, 

13. "Man, Man!" returned Carton, stamping his foot; "have 
I sworn by no solemn vow already, to go through with this, that 
you waste the precious moments now? 

14. Take him yourself to the courtyard you know of, place him 
yourself in the carriage, and drive away. 

15. "Signior Petruchio, will you go with us, or shall I send my 
daughter Kate to you"? 

16. Then here's to our boyhood, its gold and its gray! 
The stars of its winter, the dews of its May! 
And when we have done with our life-lasting toys 
Dear Father, take care of thy children, the boys. 

17. Look! His cry is answered. A woman rushes up the scaffold — 
a woman who yesterday was a mother, and now is childless, because 
Robespierre and Death have grasped her boy. 

18. In very much this way Topsy's training proceeded for a year 
or two. Miss Ophelia worrying herself, from day to day, with her 
as a kind of chronic plague, to whose infliction she became, in time, 
as accustomed as persons sometimes do to the neuralgia or sick- 
headache. 

19. Tiger, tiger, burning bright 
In the forest of the night, 



THE SENTENCE 127 

What immortal hand or eye 
Framed thy fearful sjmimetry? 

In what distant deeps or skies 
Burned that fire within thine eyes? 
On what wings dared he aspire? 
What the hand dared seize the fire? 

When the stars threw down their spears 
And watered heaven with their tears, 
Did he smile his work to see 
Did he that made the lamb make thee? 

20. Lettuce is like conversation: it must be fresh and crisp, so 
sparkling that you scarcel}^ notice the bitter in it. Lettuce, like 
most talkers, is, however, apt to run rapidly to seed. Blessed is 
that sort which comes to a head, and so remains, like a few people 
I know; growing more solid and satisfactory and tender at the 
same time, and whiter at the center, and crisp in their maturity. 
Lettuce, like conversation, requires a good deal of oil, to avoid 
friction, and keep the company smooth; a pinch of attic salt; a 
dash of pepper; a quantity of mustard and vinegar, by all means, 
but so mixed that you will notice no sharp contrasts; and a trifle of 
sugar. You can put anything, and the more things the better, into 
salad, as into conversation; but eveiy thing depends upon the skill 
of mixing. I feel that I am in the best society when I am with let- 
tuce. It is in the select circle of vegetables. 

21. So it is our duty to take and maintain the safeguards which 
will see to it that the mothers of America and the mothers of France 
and England and Italy and Belgium and all other suffering nations 
should never be called upon for this sacrifice again. This can be 
done. It must be done. And it will be done. The things that 
these men left us, though they did not in their counsels conceive 
it, is the great instrument which we have just erected in the League 
of Nations. The League of Nations is the covenant of government 
that these men shall not have died in vain. 

22. There stood Lincoln in the forefront, erect, tall, and majestic 
in appearance, hurling thunderbolts at the foes of freedom, while 
the great convention roared its endorsement! I never witnessed 
such a scene before or since. 



128 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

23. Now, it is a fact, that there was nothing at all particular 
about the knocker on the door, except that it was very large. It 
is also a fact, that Scrooge had seen it, night and morning, during 
his whole residence in that place; also that Scrooge had as little of 
what is called fancy about him as any man in the City of London, 
even including — which is a bold word — the corporation, alder- 
men, and livery. Let it also be borne in mind, that Scrooge had 
not bestowed one thought on Marley since his last mention of his 
seven-years' dead partner that afternoon. And then let any man 
explain to me, if he can, how it happened that Scrooge, having his 
key in the lock of the door, saw in the knocker, without its under- 
going any intermediate process of change — not a knocker, but 
Marley's face. 

24. And what is so rare as a day in June? 

Then if ever come perfect days; 
Then Heaven tries the earth if it be in tune, 

And over it softly her warm ear lays: 
Whether we look, or whether we listen, 
We hear life murmur, or see it ghsten; 
Every clod feels a stir of might. 

An instinct within it that reaches and towers, 
And, groping blindly above it for light. 

Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers; 

The flush of life may well be seen 

Thrilling back over hills and valleys; 
The cowslip startles in meadows green. 

The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice, 
And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean 

To be some happy creature's palace; 

Clauses and Phrases 

Clauses and grammatical phrases are word-groups which 
function in the sentence like parts-of -speech: — subject; object or 
complement; modifier. 

His-losing-his-temper (subject-phrase) because-he-couldn't-have- 
his-way (modifying clause) is what-I cannot-understand (comple- 
ment-clause), in-so-sensible-a-fellow (modifying phrase). 



THE SENTENCE 129 



Grammatical Phrases 

The grammatical phrase regularly consists of a relating 
word, ox expression, and an object, or complement; it never 
contains a subject (save possibly the ''absolute" phrase) or a 
verb-proper. 

Note: — Verb-phrases indicating tense, mode, voice, verb- 
form, are excluded from consideration as grammatical phrases, 
since they have already been treated as parts and forms of 
the verb itself — the verb with auxiliaries; (see Chapter III, 
pp. 53 ff.). Phrase-connectives such as in-front-of, as-far-as, 
etc., have also been treated. (See pages 110, 119.) 

Grammatical phrases are of several kinds: 

1. Either kind of infinitive may go to form the infinitive- 
phrase: 

the infinitive with ''to" and an object or other comple- 
mentary expression : 

You ought to-do-your-duty. 
I want to-go-home. 

the infinitive in "ing" when it takes an object: 
Forgiving-one' s-enemies isn't always easy. 

2. The preposition with its object forms the prepositional- 
phrase: 

He went down-town. 

3. The participle with an object or complement may 
form the participial-phrase: 

the active participle with an object: 

Turning-the-corner, the man came upon the boy. 

the passive participle with a complement: 
Being-made-welcome, the picnic party eagerly fell to. 



130 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

4. The active or passive participle with a noun or pronoun 
in the nominative case may form the ahsolute-phrase, so 
called because it is independent of any other part of the 
sentence; there is no connecting word: 

The-train-being-late, the traveller sauntered up the platform. 
The train-arriving, the traveller boarded it. 

The absolute phrase may readily be changed into a de- 
pendent clause: 

The-train-being-late = Because the train was late. 
The- train-arriving = When the train arrived. 

The Clauses 

The distinctive characteristic of the clause is that it 
always contains a subject and a verb-proper. 
It may be dependent or independent: 

1. The independent clause is a simple sentence. 

2. The dependent clause differs from the simple sentence 
in that: 

(a) when standing alone it does not express a complete 
thought ; 

(b) its sign is its introducing word: subordinating con- 
junction, relative pronoun, or adverb. 

I don't see how (adverb) he can bear to stay at home when (ad- 
verb) all his classmates are in service, unless (conjunction) he thinks 
that (conjunction) that is what (pronoun) he owes his family. 

The subordinate clause may have the force of a noun, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

The Noun-Clause 

The noun-clause is used to express a direct or indirect 
statement or question. The noun-clause of statement is 
generally introduced by the conjunction 'Hhat"; the 



THE SI^NTENCE 131 

noun-clause of question by ''how/' ''what/' "when/' 
"why/' etc. 
The noun-clause may be used : 

1. as the subject of the verb: 

That he would do such a thing proves his guilt (statement) . 
What you should do in his case will depend on the evidence (ques- 
tion) . 

2. as the object of the verb: 

His doing such a thing proves that he is guilty (statement). 
The evidence alone can decide what you should do (question). 

3. In apposition with the subject: 

This point is not proved, that he took the money (statement). 
The question, what he did with it, has never been settled (question). 

4. in apposition with the object: 

His doing such a thing proves my point, that he is guilty (state- 
ment) . 

The evidence alone can decide the question, ivhat you should do 
(question) . 

5. as attribute complement: 

The question is, what can we do about it? (direct) 
The question they asked was, what they coidd do about it (in- 
direct). 

The Adjective-Clause 

The adjective-clause is introduced by a relative pro- 
noun or relative adverb, expressed or understood. 
The adjective-clause may be used: 

1. to modify the subject: 

The boy who brings our milk will post your letter for you. 

2. to modify the object: 

I gave the boy the letters which I had written (object of verb). 
He put them in the bag which he carried (object of preposition). 
He lives in the house where I was born (object of preposition). 



132 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



The Adverbial Clause 

An adverbial clause may show time, place, cause, pur- 
pose, comparison, manner, degree, condition, or concession: 

When you finish your hook we shall go for a ride (time). 

We shall go wherever you wish (place). 

Susan went abroad because she wished to see the Coro- 
nation (cause). 

Albert has entered a Business College, that he may prepare 
himself to he a bookkeeper (purpose). 

You need only go on as you have hegun (manner). 

As the twig is hent, the tree's inclined (comparison). 

Always do your work as well as you possibly can (degree). 

// you change your mind let me know (condition). 

Although it looks like rain, we will not defer the ride (con- 
cession). 

Practice 

I. Classify the clauses in the following selection, tell how 
they are used and what they denote: 

1. When you go down town please order two quarts of ice cream. 

2. I think that the dress that you wore last night is the most 
becoming dress you wear. 

3. Did you say that your brother has bought a new boat? 

4. We shall go home when ever you ^dsh. 

5. If your machine is ready will you take mother home? 

6. Although I think it is a risk to drive that horse, I will go with 
you. 

7. If you speak harshly to that dog, he will not like you. 

8. While the attendants hastened to obey Cedric's commands, 
his eye distinguished Gurth the swine-herd, who, with his companion 
Wamba, had just entered the hall. "Send these loitering knaves 
up hither," said the Saxon, impatiently. And when the culprits 
came before the dais — "How comes it, villains! that you have loi- 
tered abroad so late as this? Hast thou brought home thy charge, 
sirrah Gurth, or hast thou left them to robbers and marauders?" 



THE SENTENCE 133 



11. Write: 



1. Three simple sentences, one with a compound subject, one 
with a compound predicate, and one with a compound object. 

2. Five compound sentences, using in eveiy case a different co- 
ordinating conjunction. 

3. A compound sentence of two clauses, connecting the two 
parts with and, and tell the idea expressed by the conjunction; a 
compound sentence of two clauses connected by hut, and tell the 
idea expressed by the conjunction. 

4. A compound sentence of two parts connected by or, and give 
the idea expressed by the conjunction. 

5. A compound sentence of two parts connected by either-or, and 
explain the idea expressed by the correlative. 

6. A compound sentence of two parts connected by neither-nor, 
and explain the idea expressed by the correlative. 

7. A compound sentence of two parts connected by not-only and 
hut-also, and explain the idea expressed by the correlatives. 

8. A complex imperative sentence containing one independent 
clause and one restrictive adjective-clause, connected by the con- 
junction that. 

9. A complex interrogative sentence containing one or more inde- 
pendent clauses, one of them being an adjective clause connected 
by the relative who. 

10. A complex declarative sentence containing two independent 
clauses connected by hoth; and two subordinate clauses, one an ad- 
jective clause, connected hy which, and one an adverbial clause con- 
nected by when. 

11. A compound-complex sentence containing two independent 
clauses connected by either-or; and two subordinate clauses, one an 
adjective clause, connected by the phrase-conjunction as-good-as, 
and one adverbial connected by the phrase-conjunction as-far-as. 

III. Select the simple, the complex, and the compound 
sentences: 

1. And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under 
the thick boughs of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the 
oak, and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth; and 
the mule that was under him went away. And a certain man saw 
it, and told Joab, and said, "Behold, I saw Absalom hanged in an 



134 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

oak." And Joab said unto the man that told him, "And, behold, 
thou sawest him, and why didst thou not smite him there to the 
ground? And I would have given thee ten shekels of silver and a 
girdle." And the man said unto Joab, "Though I should receive a 
thousand shekels of silver in mine hand, yet would I not put forth 
mine hand against the King's son." 

2. And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened 
the \vindoAV of the ark which he had made, and he sent forth a 
raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up 
from off the earth. Also he sent forth a dove from him to see if 
the waters were abated from off the face of the ground; but the 
dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto 
him into the ark, for the w^aters were on the face of the whole earth; 
then he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him 
into the ark. 

3. And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea; and the Lord 
caused the sea to go back by a strong east ^dnd all that night, and 
made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided. And the 
children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground, 
and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on 
their left. 

4. My dear Sidney Colvin: — 

The journey wliich this little book is to describe was very 
agreeable and fortunate for me. After an uncouth beginning, I 
had the best of luck to the end. But we are all travelers in what 
John Bunyan calls the wilderness of this world, — all, too, travelers 
with a donkey; and the best that we find in our travels is an honest 
friend. He is a fortunate voyager who finds many. We travel, 
indeed, to find them. They are the end and the reward of life. 
They keep us worthy of ourselves; and when w^e are alone, we are 
onl}^ nearer to the absent. 

E^Try book is, in an intimate sense, a circular letter to the friends 
of him who writes it. They alone take his meaning; they find pri- 
vate messages, assurances of love, and expressions of gratitude 
dropped for them in every corner. The public is but a generous 
patron who defrays the postage. Yet, though the letter is directed 
to all, we have an old and kindly custom of addressing it on the 
outside to one. Of what shall a man be proud, if he is not proud of 
his friends? And so, my dear Sidney Colvin, it is with pride that 
I sign myself affectionately yours, j^^ j^ g^ 



THE SENTENCE 135 



Analysis 

We have studied the kinds, forms and uses of individual 
words in the sentence, too;ether with such modifications 
as person, gender, number, case, degree, mode, voice, tense. 
To state the kind, form, and function of a given word in 
a given sentence is to parse that word. (See appendix for 
rules.) We have now to study the construction of the 
sentence by taking it apart and showing how its component 
parts — phrases and clauses — are related. This process is 
called analysis. (See appendix for scheme.) 

In giving the analysis of a sentence it is customary: 

1. to tell the kind and form of sentence: 

whether it be declarative, imperative, interrogative, or 

exclamatory; 
whether simple, compound, or complex; 

2. to analyze the clauses of which it is made up: 

to separate the independent from the dependent clauses ; 
to analyze first the principal clause, or clauses, into the 

essential parts; 
subject and predicate; 
modifiers of essential parts; 
to show how the essential parts are related and what 

they denote; 
to analyze the subordinate clause or clauses in the same 

way, and to show in what relation they stand to the 

clauses on which they depend. 

Let us look into, or analyze, the Twenty-third Psalm, 
notice the kinds and forms of sentences it contains: how 
many simple, compound, complex; how many declarative, 
interrogative, imperative, exclamatory: 

The Lord is my shepherd; 
I shall not want, 



136 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; 

He leadeth me beside the still waters. 

He restoreth my soul; 

He guideth me in the paths of righteousness for His name's sake. 

Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death 

I will fear no evil; 

For thou art with me; 

Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 

Thou preparest a table before me 

In the presence of mine enemies; 

Thou hast anointed my head with oil; 

My cup runneth over. 

Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life, 

And I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. 

The first two lines are made up of the simplest kind of 
simple sentences — direct statements consisting of the essen- 
tial subject and predicate, with almost no modifiers. 

The third and fourth lines continue the simple declaration 
expanding the promise by means of the infinitive phrase — 
to lie down in green pastures and the prepositional phrase — 
beside the still waters. 

The fifth gives the simple unmodified declaration. He re- 
storeth my soul. 

The sixth is a simple statement expanded by the two prep- 
ositional phrases, in the paths of righteousness, and for his 
name's sake. 

The first line of the second stanza uses a subordinate 
subjunctive clause, though I walk through the valley of the 
shadow of death. 

The next three lines are simple sentences. 

The first four lines of the last stanza consist of simple 
declarative statements. 

The poem concludes with a compound sentence which 
is a summing up of the whole. 

The poem consists of twelve simple declarative sentences, 
one complex, and one compound sentence. 



THE SENTENCE 137 

Look into Our Lord's Prayer for examples of the simple 
imperative sentence : 

Our Father which art in Heaven; 

Hallowed be thy name, 

Thy Kingdom come, 

Thy will be done. 

As in Heaven, so on earth. 

Give us this day our daily bread. 
And forgive us our debts, 
As we also have forgiven our debtors. 
And bring us not into temptation. 
But deliver us from the evil one. 

The first stanza of the Forty-Sixth Psalm is an example 
of the use of the subjunctive mode: 

God is our refuge and strength, 

A very present help in trouble. 

Therefore will we not fear, though the earth do change, 

And though the mountains be moved in the heart of the seas; 

Though the waters thereof roar and be troubled. 

Though the mountains shake with the swelling thereof. 

The Lord of hosts is with us. 

The God of Jacob is our refuge. 

The thirty-seventh verse of the twenty-third chapter of 
St. Matthew gives an exclamatory sentence of deep feeling: 

Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and 
stonest them which are sent unto thee, how often would I have 
gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens 
under her wings, and ye would not! 

Practice 
L Analyze the sentences in the following selections: 

L With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness 
in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to 
finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care 
for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and 



138 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

his children — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and 
lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. 

2. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth 
upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedi- 
cated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we 
are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or 
any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We 
are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedi- 
cate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who 
here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether 
fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense 
we camiot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this 
ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, 
have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The 
world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it 
can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather 
to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought 
here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here 
dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these 
honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which 
they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highl}^ 
resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, 
under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government 
of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish 
from the earth. 

3. Two of the strongest monkej^s caught Mowgli under the arms 
and swung off ^vith him through the tree-tops, twenty feet at a 
bound. 

4. This is the story of the great war that Rikki-tikld-tavi fought 
single-handed, through the bath-room of the big bungalow in 
Segowlee cantonment. 

Darzee, the tailor-bird, helped him, and Chuchundra, the musk- 
rat, who never comes out into the middle of the floor, but always 
creeps round by the wall, gave him ad^dce; but Rikki-tikki-tavi 
did the real fighting. 

5. I have seen too much of success in life to take off my hat and 
huzzah to it as it passes in its gilt coach; and would do mj^ little 
part with my neighbors on foot, that they should not gape \\'ith 
too much wonder, nor applaud too loudly. 

I look into my heart, and think that I am as good as m}^ Lord 
Mayor, and know I am as bad as Tyburn Jack. 



THE SENTENCE 139 

6. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang, 
And through the dark arch a charger sprang. 

7. Now Zeus, after that he had brought the Trojans and Hector 
to the ships, left them to their toil and endless labor there. 

8. They gave him of the corn-land, 
That was of public right, 

As much as two strong oxen 
Could plough from morn till night. 

9. I fear thee, ancient Mariner! 
I fear thy skinny hand! 

And thou art long, and lank, and brd^vn, 
As is the ribbed sea-sand. 

10. Then they clinched and rolled over and over, whacking and 
poimding, snorting and growling, and making no end of dust and 
rumpus. But above all their noise I could clearly hear Little Johnny, 
yelling at the top of his voice, and evidently encouraging his mother 
to go right in and finish the Grizzly at once. 

11. Happiness only begins when Abashes end; and he who hankers 
after more, enjoys nothing. 

12. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only 
the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not 
first existed; labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much 
the higher consideration. 

13. It is only by labor that thought can be made healthy, and 
only by thought that labor can be happy; and the two cannot be 
separated with impunity. 

14. The motto marked upon our foreheads, written upon our 
door posts, chaimelled in the earth, and wafted upon the waves, 
is and must be, — 

"Labor is honorable, and idleness is dishonorable." 

15. One secret of Mr. Lincoln's remarkable success in captivating 
the popular mind is undoubtedly an unconsciousness of self which 
enables him, though under the necessity of constantly using the 
capital I, to do it without any suggestion of egotism. There is no 
single vow^el which men's mouths can pronounce with such differ- 
ence of effect. That which one shall hide away, as it were, behind 
the substance of his discourse, or, if he bring it to the front, shall 
use merely to give an agreeable accent of individuality to what he 
says, another shall make an offensive challenge to the self-satisfac- 
tion of all his hearers, and an unwarranted intrusion upon each 
man's sense of personal importance, irritating every pore of his 



140 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 

vanity, like a dry northeast wind, to a goose-flesh of opposition and 
hostility. Mr. Lincoln has never studied Quintihan; but he has, 
in the earnest simplicity and unaffected Americanism of his own 
character, one art of oratory worth all the rest. He forgets himself 
so entirely in his object as to give his I the sympathetic and per- 
suasive effect of We with the great body of his countrymen. Homely, 
dispassionate, showing all the rough-edged process of his thought 
as it goes along, yet arriving at his conclusions with an honest kind 
of every-day logic, he is so eminently our representative man, that, 
when he speaks, it seems as if the people were Hstening to their 
own thinking aloud. 

The dignity of his thought owes nothing to any ceremonial garb 
of words, but to the manly movement that comes of settled purpose 
and an energy of reason that knows not what rhetoric means. 
There has been nothing of Cleon, still less of Strepsiades striving 
to underbid him in demagogism, to be found in the public utter- 
ances of Mr. Lincoln. He has always addressed the intelligence 
of men, never their prejudice, their passion, or their ignorance. 

16. "That suggests, Mr. Lincoln, an inquiry which has several 
times been upon my lips during this conversation. I want very 
much to know how you got this unusual power of 'putting things.' 
It must have been a matter of education. No man has it by nature 
alone. What has your education been?" 

"Well, as to education, the newspapers are correct. I never 
went to school more than six months in my life. But, as you say, 
this must be a product of culture in some form. I have been putting 
the question you ask me to myself while you have been talking. 
I say this, that among my earliest recollections, I remember how, 
when a mere child, I used to get irritated when anybody talked to 
me in a way I could not understand. I don't think I ever got 
angry at anything else in my life. But that always disturbed my 
temper, and has ever since. I can remember going to my little 
bedroom, after hearing the neighbors talk of an evening with my 
father, and spending no small part of the night walking up and 
down, and trying to make out what was the exact meaning of some 
of their, to me, dark sayings. I could not sleep, though I often 
tried to, when I got on such a hunt after an idea, until I had caught 
it; and when I thought I had got it, I was not satisfied until I had 
repeated it over and over again, until I had put it in language 
plain enough, as I thought, for any boy I knew to comprehend. 
This was a kind of passion with me, and it has stuck by me, for I 



THE SENTENCE 141 

am never easy now, when I am handling a thought, till I have 
bounded it north and bounded it south and bounded it east and 
bounded it west. Perhaps that accounts for the characteristic you 
observe in my speeches, though I never put the two things together 
before." 



I 



142 



GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 



Outline Summary 



Grammatical 
Phrases 



Kind and 
Form 



Clauses 



Use 



Kind and 
Form 



Use 



Sentences 



Form 



f a. the infinitive with "to", and an 
j object or complement; 

; b. the infinitive in "ing", and an 
[ object ._ 

2. Prepositional: the preposition and its object. 

[ a. the active participle and an 
object, 
b. the passive participle and a 

complement, 
the active or passive participle with 
noun, pronoun, or equivalent, in 
nominative case. 



1. Infinitive: 



3. Participial: ■! 



4. Absolute: 



noun-phrase; can be subject, object, 
objective complement, or appositive. 

adjective or adverbial phrase; can 
modifj' accordingly. 

adjective or adverbial phrase; can 
modify accordingly. 

adverbial phrase; can modify accord- 
ingly. 

the simple sentence. 
f a. noun-clause. 
{ h. adjective clause. 
[ c. adverbial clause. 



1. Noun-clause may be subject, object, or appositive. 

2. Adjective clause may modify nouns, pronouns, or 

equivalents. 

3. Adverbial clause may modify verbs, adjectives, 

other adverbs, or equivalents of any. 



1. Infinitive: 

2. Prepositional: 

3. Participial: 

4. Absolute: 

1. Independent: 

2. Dependent: 



f 1. Declarative: makes an assertion. 
Kind and ' 2. Interrogative: asks a question. 

Use 1 3. Imperative: makes a command or entreaty. 

4. Exclamatory: expresses deep feeling. 



1. Simple: but one statement, question, or command. 

2. Compound: two or more independent clauses. 

3. Complex: one or more independent clauses and one 

or more dependent clauses. 



APPENDIX 

A. The Conjugation of the Verb 

By the conjugation of the verb we mean a complete 
display of all its parts and forms: (1) the verb-forms; (2) 
the modes and the verbals; (3) the tenses; and (4) the per- 
sons and numbers. 

INDICATIVE MODE 



Simple Form 


Progressive Form 
Present 


Emphatic Form 


Singular 


Singular 


Singular 


I go 

you go (thou goest) 

he goes 


I am going 

you are (thou art) going 

he is going 


I do go 
you do go 
he does go 


Plural 


Plural 


Plural 


we go 


we are going 


we do go 


you go 
they go 


you are going 
they are going 

Past 


you do go 
they do go 


Singular 


Singular 


Singular 


I went 
you went 
he went 


I was going 

you were (thou wert) going 

he was going 


I did go 
you did go 
he did go 


Plural 


Plural 


Plural 


we went 
you went 
they went 


we were going 
you were going 
they were going 


we did go 
you did go 
they did go 



144 



APPENDIX 



Simple Form 

Singular 
I shall go 
you will go 
he will go 

Plural 
we shall go 
you will go 
they will go 



Progressive Form 
Simple Future 
Singular 
I shall be going 
you will be going 
he will be going 

Plural 

we shall be going 
you will be going 
they will be going 



Future (will or determination) 
Singular Singular 

I will go I will be going 

you shall (thou shalt) go you shall (thou shalt) be going 

he shall go he shall be going 



Plural 


Plurat- 


we will go 
you shall go 
they shall go 


we will be going 
you shall be going 
they shall be going 




Perfect 


Singular 


Singular 


I have gone 

you have (thou hast) gone 

he has gone 


I have been going 

you have (thou hast) been going 

he has been going 


Plural 


Plural 


we have gone 
you have gone 
they have gone 


we have been going 
you have been going 
thej^ have been going 



Past Perfect 
Singular Singular 

I had gone I had been going 

you had (thou hadst) gone you had (thou hadst) been going 

he had gone they had been going 



APPENDIX 



145 



Simple Form 
Plural 
we had gone 
you had gone 
they had gone 

Singular 



Progressive Form 

Plural 

we had been going 

you had been going 

they had been going 



Future Perfect 
Singular 



I shall have gone 

you will (thou wilt) have gone 

he will have gone 

Plural 

we shall have gone 
you will have gone 
they will have gone 



I shall have been going 

you will (thou wilt) have been going 

he will have been going 

Plural 

we shall have been going 
you will have been going 
they will have been going 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
Simple Form Progressive Form Emphatic Form 

Present 
(If) I, you, he go (If) I, you, he do go 

(If) we, you, they go (If) we, you, they do go 

(If) I, you, he be going 
(If) we, you, they be going 

Past 
(If) I, you, he went (If) I, you, he did go 

(If) we, you, they went (If) we, you, they did go 

(If) I, you, he were going 

(If) we, you, they were going 



Simple Form 



go 



to go, going 



IMPERATIVE MODE 
Progressive Form 
Present 
be going 

INFINITIVES 

Present 
to be going 



Emphatic Form 
do go 



146 



APPENDIX 



Perfect 
to have gone, having gone to have been going 

PARTICIPLES 
Present 

going 



having gone 



Perfect 
having been going 



ACTIVE VOICE 
INDICATIVE MODE 



Simple Form 



;5INGULAR 

I make 
you make 

(thou makest) 
he makes 

Plural 
we make 
you make 
they make 



Singular 
I made 
you made 

(thou madest) 
he made 

Plural 
we made 
you made 
they made 



Progressive Form 

Present 
Singular 
I am making 
you are (thou art) 

making 
he is making 

Plural 
we are making 
you are making 
they are making 

Past 
Singular 
I was making 
you were (thou wast) 

making 
he was making 

Plural 

we were making 
you were making 
they were making 



Emphatic Form 

Singular 
I do make 
you do (thou dost) 

make 
he does make 

Plural 
we do make 
you do make 
they do make 



Singular 

I did make 

you did (thou didst) 

make 
he did make 

Plural 
we did make 
you did make 
they did make 



APPENDIX 



147 



Simple Form 



Singular 



I shall make 

3^011 will (thou wilt) make 

he will make 



Progressive Form 
Simple Future 

Singular 

I shall be making 

you will (thou wilt) be making 

he will be making 



Plural 
we shall make 
you will make 
they will make 



Plural 

we shall be making 
you will be making 
they will be making 



Future 
(will or determination) 
Singular Singular 

I will make I will be making 

you shall (thou shalt) make you shall (thou shalt) be 

making 
he shall make he shall be making 



Plural 
we will make 
you shall make 
they shall make 



Plural 

we will be making 
you shall be making 
they shall be making 



Perfect 



Singular 

I have made 

you have (thou hast) made 

he has made 



Singular 

I have been making 

you have (thou hast) 

making 
he has been making 



been 



Plural 
we have made 
you have made 
they have made 



Plural 

we have been making 
you have been making 
they have been making 



148 



APPENDIX 



Simple Form 

Singular 

I had made 

you had (thou hadst) made 

he had made 



Progressive Form 



Past Perfect 



Plural 
we had made 
you had made 
they had made 



Singular 

I shall have made 

you shall (thou shalt) 

have made 
he shall have made 

Plural 

we shall have made 
you shall have made 
they shall have made 



Singular 

I had been making 

you had (thou hadst) been 

making 
he had been making 

Plural 

we had been making 
you had been making 
they had been making 

Future Perfect 

Singular 

I shall have been making 

you shall (thou shalt) have 

been making 
he shall have been making 

Plural 

we shall have been making 
you shall have been making 
they shall have been making 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
Simple Form Progressive Form Emphatic Form 

Present 
(If) I, you, he make (If) I, you, he do make 

(If) we, you, they make (If) we, you, they do make 

(If) I, you, he were making 
(If) we, you, they be making 

Past 
(If) I, you, he made (If) I, you, he did make 

(If) we, you, they made (If) we, you, they did make 

(If) I, you, he were making 

(If) we, you, they were making 





APPENDIX 


149 




IMPERATIVE MODE 




Simple Form 


Progressive Form 


Emphatic Form 


make 


be making 


do make 




INFINITIVES 






Present 




to make, making 


to be making 





Perfect 
to have made, having made to have been making 



making 
having made 



PARTICIPLES 

Present 



Perfect 

having been making 



PASSIVE VOICE 



INDICATIVE MODE 



Simple Form 



Present 



Singular 

I am made 

you are (thou art) made 

he is made 

Plural 
we are made 
you are made 
they are made 



Progressive Form 

Singular 

I am being made 

you are (thou art) 

being made 
he is being made 

Plural 

we are being made 
you are being made 
they are being made 



150 




APPENDIX 




Simple Form 




Past 


Progressive Form 


Singular 






Singular 


I was made 

you were (thou wast) 

made 
he was made 




I was being made 
you were (thou wast) 

being made 
he was being made 


Plural 






Plural 


we were made 
you were made 
they were made 






we were being made 
you were being made 
they were being made 


I shall be made 




Simple Future 

Future 




I will be made 


(will or determination) 








Perfect 




I have been made 




Past Perfect 




I had been made 




Future Perfect 




I shall have been made 








SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 


Simple Form 






Progressive Form 


(If) I be made 




Present 
Past 




(If) I were made 






(If) I were being made 




IMPERATIVE MODE 






Present 





be made 



APPENDIX 



151 



Simple Form 

to be made, being made 



INFINITIVES 
Present 



Perfect 
to have been made, having been made 



being made 
made 

having been made 



PARTICIPLES 
Present 

Past 

Perfect 

INDICATIVE MODE 



Simple Form 






Progressive Form 






Present 


Singular 






Singular 


I am 

you are (thou art) 

he is 




I am being 

you are (thou art) being 

he is being 


Plural 






Plural 


we are 
you are 
they are 




Past 


we are being 
you are being 
they are being 


Singular 






Singular 


I was 

you were (thou wast) 

he was 




I was being 

you were (thou wast) being 

he was being 



152 



APPENDIX 



Simple FoRai 
Plural 
we were 
you were 
they were 

Singular 

I shall be 

you will (thou wilt) be 

he will be 

Plural 
we shall be 
you will be 
they will be 



Progressive Form 

Plural 

we were being 

you were being 

they were being 



Simple Future 



Singular 



Future 
(will or determination) 



I will be 

you shall (thou shalt) be 

he shall be 

Plural 
we will be 
you shall be 
they shall be 



Singular 

I have been 

you have (thou hast) been 

he has been 



Perfect 



Plural 
we have been 
you have been 
they have been 



APPENDIX 153 

Simple Form 

Past Perfect 
Singular 
I had been 

you had (thou hadst) been 
he had been 

Plural 
we had been 
you had been 
they had been 

Future Perfect 
Singular 
I shall have been 
you shall (thou shalt) have been 
he shall have been 

Plural 

we shall have been 
you shall have been 
they shall have been 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
Present 
(If) I, you, thou, he be 
(If), we you, they be 

Past ^ 
(If) I, you, he were (thou wert) 
(If) we, you, they were 

IMPERATIVE MODE 
be 

INFINITIVES 

Present 
to be, being 

Perfect 
to have been, having been 

PARTICIPLES 
Present 
being 

Perfect 
having been 



B. Analysis 

The analysis of the sentence may be written out, or it 
may be shown by means of hnes. Thus: 

(1) The man who lives in that house is the owner of a gold 
mine. 

man , is \ owner 



who 



lives 



mine 



(2) That we have the better team is certain for the coach says 
that our men are the heavier, and that they are the better trained. 



we have i team 



^^ 



IS \ certain 



are \ heavic 



they I are \ trained 



APPENDIX 



155 



(3) To he pleasant when everything is going as we wish 
is no difficult task, hut it is not easy to be pleasant when every- 
thing seems to he going wrong. 



be \ pleasant 



everything 



going 



A I 'S 



\ task 



we I wish 



be \ pleasant 



\^ 



everything | seems 




\^ be 



..A^ 



-C-A)_4. 



The principal parts of a sentence: subject, predicate, and comple- 
ment are placed on a horizontal line. 

The subject is separated from the predicate by a perpendicular 
line cutting the horizontal line. 1 

The object-complement is separated from the predicate by a 
perpendicular line joining the horizontal hne. i 

The attribute complement is separated from the predicate by 
a line joining the horizontal line and slanting toward the 
subject. \ 

The objective complement is separated from the predicate by a 
line joining the horizontal Une and slanting toward the object com- 
plement. Z L__ 

The coordinating conjunction is placed on a horizontal line 
and joined to the parts it connects by perpendicular dotted 
lines. 1 



The subordinate conjunction is placed upon a slanting dotted 



156 APPENDIX 

line, or a part dotted and part heavy line when used as a modifier, 
the heavy part of the line to connect with the word modified by 
the conjunction. 

All modifiers are placed on lines which slant from the words 
they modify. 

Note : — This form for diagraming sentences is adopted from Reed 
and Kellogg's Grammar. 



C. The Sentence: Essentials and Modifiers 



(1) What the Essential Parts of a Sentence May Be 

A noun, or a noun with its modifiers. 
A pronoun or a pronoun with its modifiers. 
An infinitive with "to" or an infinitive in 

"ing," simple or modified. 
An infinitive phrase with "to" or in "ing," 

simple or modified. 
A noun-clause with its modifiers. 



(a) The subject may be 



(b) The verb may be 



[ Transitive [ Active voice 
A simple verb j j or 

[ Intransitive [ Passive voice 



Verb-phrase 



Transitive f Active voice 

j or 

Intransitive Passive voice 



158 



APPENDIX 



^ Object comple- 
ment may be 



(c) The complement 
may be 



^ A noun, or a noun with its 
modifiers. 

A pronoun or a pronoun 
with its modifiers. 

An infinitive in "ing," 
simple or modified. 

An infinitive phrase, sim- 
ple or modified. 

A noun-clause with its 
modifiers. 



A noun, or a noun with its 

modifiers. 
A pronoun, or a pronoun 

with its modifiers. 
An adjective, simple or 

Attribute of the , . • r- •-• ' • u- jj • 
,. , , ^ An mnmtive m mg, sim- 

ple or modified. 
An infinitive phrase in 
"ing" or with "to," sim- 
ple or modified. 
A noun-clause with its 
modifiers. 



subject may be 



Attribute of the | 
object may be | 



Like the object. 



APPENDIX 



159 



(2) What May Modify the Essential Parts of the 

Sentence 



■ An adjective 
A possessive pronoun used adjectively 
A participle 

(a) The subject may be A single infinitive phrase 
modified by A prepositional phrase 

An adjective clause 

A word, phrase, or clause used in apposi- 
tion 



(b) The verb may be 
modified by 



An adverb 

A prepositional phrase used adverbially 
An infinitive phrase used adverbially 
A clause used adverbially 



(c) The complement 
may be modified 

by 



An adjective 

A possessive pronoun used adjectively 
A participle 

A simple infinitive phrase 
An adjective clause 

A word, phrase, or clause used in apposi- 
tion 
A prepositional phrase. 



D. Parsing 



To parse a word means to tell all about its grammatical 
meaning and use ; that is, to : 

1. Classify — give part of speech. 

2. Give its modifications. 

3. Tell how it is used. 

4. Tell by what rule it is governed. 



Noun 



When we parse a word we tell: — 

Kind — common, proper, etc. 

Person 

Gender 

Number 

Case 

Use — (rule) 



Pronoun 



Kind 



Form 



Use 
(Rule) 



Personal 
Relative 
^ Demonstrative 
Interrogative 
Indefinite 

Person (personal) 
Gender (personal, relative) 
Number (personal, indefinite, demonstra- 
tive, relative) 
Case (all kinds) 

Subject, object, complement 
Relating function (relative) 
Agreement with antecedent 



APPENDIX 



161 



Verb 



Kind 



Transitive 
Intransitive 



Conjugation 

Principal parts 

Voice 

Mode 

Tense 

Person 

Number 



Regular 
Irregular 



Verbals 



Adjective 



Adverb 



Kind 



Infinitive — with "to," or in ''ing' 
Participle — present or past 



Voice 
Tense 
Use 






Kind 


Limitmg \ 

[ 


Article 

Numeral 

Pronominal 




Descriptive 


Proper 
Common 


Form j Comparison 
. Use 1 Degree 


1 


Kind 


Simple 

Conjunctive 

Responsive 




Form 

Use 


Comparison 
Degree 





162 



APPENDIX 



Preposition 



Kind 



Simple 
Compound 



The relation shown 
Words related 



Conjunction 



Kind f Coordinating 
[ feubordmatmg 

[ Words 
Parts joined \ Phrases 
[ Clauses 



Interjection 



Name 
Meaning 



INDEX 



Absolute Phrase, 23, 130 
Adjectives, 5, 80 

Articles, 81 

Care in use of, 89-90 

Classes of, 80 

Comparison of, 86-88 

Compound Adjectives, 84 

Definition of, 5, 80 

Descriptive, 80, 83 

Interrogative, 80, 82 

Limiting, 80, 82 

Numerals, 81, 82 

Pronominal Adjectives, 80, 82 

Proper Adjectives, 83 
Adverbs, 5, 93-94 

Care in use of, 93 

Classes of, 93 

Comparison of, 94-95 

Conjunctive Adverbs, 97 

Conjunctive Connectives, 122 

Correct use of Negatives, 96- 
97 

Definition of, 93-94 

Distinction between Adjectives 
and Adverbs, 94-96 

Interrogative, 96 

Modal Adverbs, 96 

Responsives, 97 

Subordinating Conjunctive 
Adverbs, 98 
Agreement of Collective Noun 

and Verb, 74 
Agreement of Pronoun, 38 



Agreement of Subject and 

Verb, 73 
Agreement of Verb in Number, 

Person, Tense, 73-74 
Alone, 98 

Analysis of the Sentence, 137 
Antecedent, 35, 38 
Apposition, 23-24, 131 
Attribute Complement, 84, 131 
Auxiliaries, 47, 53-54, 56 



B 



Be, Conjugation of, 151-153 
Copulative Verb, 51 
Regular Auxiliary of Passive, 
54 



Care in Punctuating Sentences, 

123 
Case of Nouns and Pronouns, 21 

Nominative, 22-23, 31, 33-34 

Objective, 23-24, 31 

Possessive, 24-25, 26, 27, 31 
Compound Possessive, 25 
Clauses, 130 

Adjective, 131 

Adverbial, 132 

Dependent, 130 

Independent, 130 

Noun, 130 

Use of Subordinating Clauses, 
130-132 



163 



164 



INDEX 



Complements, 2, 159 

Attribute, 84 

Indirect Object, 24 

Object, 84 

Objective, 84 
Compound Elements, 121 

Complements, 121 

Modifiers, 121 

Predicate, 121 

Sentence, 121-122 

Subject, 121 
Conjugation, 143-153 
Conjunctions, 5, 112 

Adverbs as Conjunctions, 115 

Conjunctive Connectives, 112, 
113, 114 

Conjunctions both Coordinat- 
ing and Subordinating, 114 

Correct use of Conjunctions, 
117-118 

Correlative conjunctions, 114 

Distinctions in the use of 
Subordinating Conjunctive 
Adverbs, 98 

Phrase Conjunctions, 115 
Connectives, 3, 122 
Copulative, 50-51 



D 



Diagraming, 154-156 
Disjunctive Connectives, 122 
Double Negative, 96-97 



E 



Either, Neither, 40, 90 
Essentials of the Sentence, 157 
Except, 118 
Expletive, 6 



Few, Little, 89 

G 

Gender, 12-13 

Go, Conjugated, 143-146 

Good, Well, 98 

Grammar Defined, 1 

Grammatical Phrases, 128-130 

I 

Interjection, 3, 5, 111 

L 



Little, 89 



M 



Make, Conjugation of, 146-151 

May, 54 

Might, 54 

Mode, 48, 56-59 
Imperative, 48, 59 
Indicative, 48, 57-58 
Subjunctive, 48, 57, 58 

Modifiers, 3, 120 

Must, 54 

N 

Nouns, 5, 10, 11 
Abstract, 11 
Case, 22-31 
Collective, 11 
Common, 11 
Gender, 12-13 

Common, 13 

Feminine, 13 

Mascuhne, 13 

Neuter, 13 



INDEX 



165 



Nouns— Continued 
Number, 14-21 

Plural, 14-19, 20 

Singular, 14-19, 20 
Predicate Noun, 23 
Proper Noun, 10 

O 

Only, 98 

Other, 88 

Ought, 54 

Outhne Summaries of, 

Adjectives, 92 

Adverbs, 101 

Clauses, 130 

Conjunctions, 119 

Modifiers of Essential Parts of 
Sentences, 159 

Nouns, 31 

Parsing, 160-162 

Phrases, 128-130 

Prepositions, 110 

Pronouns, 45 

Skeleton outline, 9 

Verbs, 79 



Parsing, 160-162 
Parts-of-Speech, 3-8 
Potential Auxiliaries, 54-55 
Practice in use of. 
Adjectives, 84-87, 90-91, 94, 

96, 98-100 
Adverbs, 95-96, 98-100 
Analysis of Sentences, 135-142 
Auxiliaries, 56 
Case of Nouns, 26-30, 38 
Nominative, 26-30 
Objective, 27-30 
dve, 25-30 



Practice in use of — Continued 
Clauses, 132 
Comparison of Adjectives and 

Adverbs, 90-91 
Conjunctions, 115-117, 118 
Expletives, 6-7 
Gender, 14, 20-21 
Infinitives and Participles, 62- 

64 
Limiting Adjectives, 83 
Mode; Subjunctive, 58-59 
Nouns, 11-12, 13-14, 18- 

21 
Number, 18-21 
Parts-of-Speech, 7-8 
Prepositions, 103-104, 106- 

109 
Pronouns, 38-39, 41-44 

Demonstrative, 39 

Indefinite, 41 

Interrogative, 39 

Personal, 39, 42-43-44 
Sentences, 126-128, 133-134 
Tense, 67-70 
Verbals, 62-64 
Verb Forms, 72-73 
Verbs, 51-53, 56, 58-59, 67-68, 

69-71, 74, 75, 77, 78. 
Predicate, 2, 120 
Compound, 2 
Simple, 2 
Prepositions, 5, 102-110 
Compound, 102 
Correct use of, 104-110 
Definition of, 102 
Idiomatic, 102 
Pronouns, 4-5, 32 
Antecedents, 35, 38 
Classes of, 

Compound Personal, 34 

Compound Relative, 35-36 



166 



INDEX 



Pronouns — Continued 

Classes of, 
Demonstrative, 32, 37, 45 
Distinctions in use of Rela- 
tive Pronouns, 35 
Indefinite, 32, 37-40, 45 
Interrogative, 32, 34, 45 
Personal, 32, 34, 45 
Relative, 32, 35, 41, 45 

Punctuation, 123, 124, 125 



Q 

Quotations, Rules for use of, 
125 



R 



Responsives, 97 



S 



Sentences, 1-3, 120-121 
Complex, 122 
Compound, 122 
Declarative, 124-125 
Exclamatory, 124-125 
Imperative, 124-125 
Simple, 121 

Shall, 55-56 

Should, 55 

Some; Somewhat, 98 



Tense, 48, 54, 65-67 

Difficulties in use of, 68 
There, 6 

V 

Verbals, 47, 60-64, 68 
Infinitives, 61-64, 129 
Participles, 61, 68, 79 

Verb Forms, 49, 53, 71-72 
Emphatic, 49, 71-72 
Progressive, 49, 71-72 

Verbs, 46-47, 79 
Agreement of, 73-74 
Auxiharies, 47, 53-54 
Conjugation, 143-153 
Copulative, 50-51 
Intransitive, 47, 50, 53 
Irregular, 76 
Principal Parts, 75-76 
Regular, 76 
Transitive, 47, 49-50 

Voice, Active and Passive, 48, 
50, 60-61, 67, 79, 149 



W 



Which, 35, 37 
Who, 35, 37 
Will, 55, 56 
Would, 55, 56 

You, 74 



